Name of Expert: Theodore A. Wilson, Ph.D.
Area of Expertise: Employment & Vocational >> Social Workers
Representing: Defendant
Jurisdiction: D.Kan.
STATE OF KANSAS
COUNTY OF DOUGLAS
Theodore A. Wilson, being duly sworn, says and deposes:
1. My name is Theodore A. Wilson. I am Professor of History at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, having served on its faculty since 1965. I hold a B.A. in History and Political Science (Indiana University, 1962), M.A. in History (Indiana University, 1963), and Ph.D. in American History (Indiana University, 1966). I have held research fellowships and visiting professorships in such institutions as the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library Institute, the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College in Fort Leavenworth, and University College-Dublin. My teaching, research, and publications embrace political, social, economic, and military history, especially during the eras of World War II and the Cold War. I am the author, co-author, or editor of seven books and numerous articles dealing with historical subjects and claim expert knowledge of the political and social history of the United States in the 20th century.
2. I have been asked to research popular awareness about and the public's understanding of the addictive and health-threatening effects of cigarette smoking. Making use of research assistants with graduate training in history and history/library science, I have been pursuing research in published sources (books, scholarly articles, periodicals, newspapers, and compilations of government records) and in archival collections and personal papers at the national level and, more particularly, in Kansas bearing upon popular awareness and the public's understanding of smoking's addictive and health-threatening aspects over the past two centuries. For the purposes of this affidavit, my research and conclusions deal primarily with the issue of popular awareness regarding the addictive nature and health-threatening effects of cigarette smoking in the state of Kansas and the United States during the 20th century.
3. Widespread and continuing awareness within American society and in Kansas of the health-threatening effects and addictive character of smoking cigarettes is documented in such sources as newspapers and periodicals, including publications of leading anti-smoking groups; federal and state records (state legislative hearings, congressional hearings, federal executive agencies, and state and local public health departments); texts and publications used in schools and distributed by religious and eleemosynary organizations; diaries, memoirs, and autobiographies; unpublished writings and correspondence of anti-smoking advocates, physicians, scientists, and political leaders; and radio and television news programs and documentaries, motion pictures, cartoons, and even board games. Space permits inclusion of only a fraction of the material unearthed that relates to this subject.
4. The public's cognizance that smoking had health and life-threatening consequences and that a likely connection existed between smoking and addiction is deeply ingrained in American culture. The emergence in America of the cigarette as the form chosen by most tobacco users was paralleled by an aggressive and broadly-based popular opposition movement. Indeed, between 1900 and the 1990s, anti-smoking advocates succeeded in curbing access to cigarettes, in stigmatizing the act of smoking, and in reducing the incidence of smoking by characterizing this act as addictive behavior and by greatly enhancing the public's longstanding awareness about smoking's presumed health consequences. Even though the numbers of Americans smoking cigarettes increased significantly in the late 19th and the first part of the 20th century, information about its addictive and health-threatening effects has pervaded American society throughout the 20th century, disseminated by newspapers, periodicals, textbooks, self-help literature, official reports, and such paradigms of popular culture as films and television programs. When exploring popular understanding about a subject such as cigarettes, health, and addiction, historians keep in mind the distinction between what trained scientists knew and expressed and what the man or woman in the street assumed to be the truth of the matter.
5. Long before the 20th century dawned, warnings about the injurious and addictive effects of smoking circulated widely. One of the first known condemnations of tobacCo. King James I's A Counterblaste to Tobacco (1604) stressed its harmful effects on both the human body and the will, thus setting the tone for the vast bulk of anti-smoking discourse until recent times. 1 The Puritan divine, Cotton Mather, in Manuductio ad Ministerium: Directions for a Candidate of the Ministry, remarked that “if once you get into the way of Smoking, there will be extreme hazard of your becoming a Slave to the pipe; and ever Insatiably craving for it.” 2 Benjamin Franklin observed: “I never saw a man well in the exercise of commonsense who would say that tobacco did him good.” 3 Our sixth president, John Quincy Adams, admitted in 1845 that “in my early youth I was addicted to tobacco in two of its mysteries--smoking and chewing. I was warned by a medical friend of the pernicious operation of this habit ... and the advice of the physician was fortified by my own experience.” Were “every acre of tobacco-land” converted into wheat fields, Adams claimed, that act would “add five years to the average human life.” 4 Among many others, Abraham Lincoln, and Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes condemned smoking as an unhealthy and enslaving habit.
6. Indeed, Americans routinely made use of the metaphor of slavery and enslavement to describe tobacco's perceived addictive qualities. Rev. J.B. Wight proclaimed: “This tobacco-slavery ... numbers among its victims more persons than were ever captured in war in Attica or were brought from Africa in ships.” 5 Cigarette smoking was considered both an addiction and evidence of moral degradation. Many authorities claimed, as did anti-drug crusader Charles B. Towns, that “the relation of tobacCo. especially in the form of cigarettes, and alcohol and opium is a very close one.” 6 Such terms as “bondage,” and “fetters” were linked in familiar parlance with smoking; cigarettes were widely termed “fags” and “little white slavers”; and smokers were characterized as “cigarette slaves” and “cigarette addicts.” Anti-smoking crusaders were especially concerned about the appeal of cigarettes to adolescent boys. 7 The wellknown Kansas child welfare advocate, William A. McKeever, remonstrated against the “deleterious effects of juvenile smoking.” 8
7. As use of cigarettes spread, newspapers across the nation constantly stressed the dangers of smoking. 9 Physicians and the general public understood that tobacco contained a deadly poison, nicotine, and that inhaling cigarette smoke delivered larger quantities of nicotine into the lungs. 10 By the late 19th century, most states mandated instruction about physiology and hygiene, including information about the effects of tobacco and cigarettes. In Kansas, for example, the first such legislation dated to 1877. An early instructional pamphlet, “Temperance, Health, and Moral Purity,” warned that “the list of diseases declared by the most learned physicians to result from the use of tobacco in all forms is appalling.” 11 The Kansas law--still in effect--requiring statewide instruction in “physiology and hygiene” courses about the malign effects of alcohol and narcotics was first enacted in 1899. 12 The recommended physiology examination by 1911 included such questions as “What is the effect of tobacco upon the heart?,” and “What are the special injurious effects of tobacco on the young?” 13 The prescribed course of study in 1913 for Kansas rural schools featured a text, Graded Lessons in Physiology and Hygiene, co-authored by Dr. Samuel J. Crumbine, Secretary of the Kansas Board of Health and Dean of the University of Kansas School of Medicine. 14 By 1900, many states and territories had banned the sale of cigarettes to minors, and calls were mounting for total prohibition. Kansas enacted a total ban on the sale of cigarettes in 1909, and that law was in effect until 1927. 15 Laws prohibiting the sale of cigarettes were enacted in the neighboring states of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Iowa and Nebraska, as well as ten other states during this period.
8. The Women's Christian Temperance Union, active throughout the Midwest and especially in Kansas, took up the cudgels against tobacco. An often-repeated refrain was the injurious effects of smoking on individuals and families. “If one is seeking the causes of the numerical decrease and the physical degeneration of American families, let him not look to the fractional one per cent of the college-bred women, but to the eighty-eight percent of the tobacco-using men,” proclaimed a WCTU publication. 16 Organizations such as the Anti-Cigarette League of America (ACL), founded by a redoubtable WCTU alumna, Lucy Page Gaston, specifically targeted the cigarette for censure. By 1901, the ACL boasted a membership of 300,000, with membership throughout the United States, including Kansas. 17 It and allied groups such as the Anti-Saloon League, the Non-Smokers Protective League, the No-Tobacco League and No-Tobacco Army, the WCTU's Anti-Narcotics Department, the Salvation Army, and the YMCA sought to to achieve nationwide prohibition by exploiting the prevailing popular conviction that cigarettes were harmful. By 1907, for example, Kansas WCTU chapters had organized “Anti-Cigarette Sundays” in every county. 18 Kansas proved fertile ground for the reform juggernaut.
9. These efforts continued unabated through World War I. After 1904, the Salvation Army's national magazine, The War Cry, aggressively attacked cigarette smoking. 19 YMCA publications warned youths and their parents about the dangers of smoking. 20 Such influential businessmen as Henry Ford and Thomas Edison condemned the cigarette habit. Edison warned the effects of smoking were “permanent and uncontrollable. I employ no person who smokes cigarettes.” 21 Kansas asserted a leading role. As the national magazine, Survey, noted in 1917: “Kansas ... is ... gathering herself together to fight the cigarette. Kansas calls the cigarette the ‘little white slaver,’ the ‘blight on health and character’.... She is going to bully, cozen, intimidate, placard and educate the cigarette out of existence. The most remarkable thing about her campaign is the character and variety of those who have agreed to help in it.” 22 Professor William A. McKeever, head of KU's Department of Child Welfare, played a pivotal role, along with Dr. S.C. Crumbine, Governor Arthur Capper, KU Chancellor Frank Strong, and representatives of the WCTU, the Kansas State Teacher's Association, and the Kansas Federation of Women's Clubs. 23 Lucy Page Gaston, the anti cigarette crusade's Carrie Nation, increasingly focused on Kansas. She sought to block Kansas patriotic groups from sending cigarettes to the troops in France during World War I and briefly relocated the movement's headquarters to Topeka. 24
10. Although patriotic sentiments associated with World War I and other influences led to a notable increase in the prevalence of cigarette smoking among both men and women in the decades after 1920, efforts to disseminate information about the addictive and injurious effects of cigarettes continued. A few examples of the energetic awareness efforts during the decades from 1920 through World War II should suffice. Following passage of the 18th Amendment, anti-smoking advocates vowed that tobacco would be next. Evangelist Billy Sunday declared: “Prohibition is won; now for tobacco.” 25 An influential “Committee of Fifty to Study the Tobacco Problem,” chaired by economist Irving Fisher and comprising businessmen, physicians, and educators, sponsored anti-smoking pamphlets such as “The Case Against Smokes” and “Is the Tobacco Habit Injurious?”. 26 The WCTU, Anti-Tobacco League, Methodist Church, and many other organizations maintained staunch opposition to cigarette smoking throughout the interwar decades. 27 A report from Lawrence, Kansas bemoaned the fact that more than half of KU freshmen admitted being “addicted to the weed.” 28 An Associated Press story noted that in Graz, Austria, the 4th International Congress of opponents of smoking was taking place. “According to the speeches delivered, the harm done by liquor is little indeed compared to the ravages inflicted upon mankind by the smoking habit.” 29 In 1926, physicians condemned the “cigarette habit” in hearings conducted by the House of Representatives Committee on Education. 30 Three years later, Senator Reed Smoot, who had referred repeatedly in a emotionally-charged speech to the addictive nature of cigarettes, urged that Congress place tobacco products under the Food and Drugs Act. 31
11. Admonitions to Kansans about the dangers of smoking continued unabated. Indeed, an attempt by longtime antismoking advocate and Kansas Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lorraine Elizabeth Wooster, to deny teaching credentials to anyone who smoked brought national attention to the issue and to Kansas. 32 Physicians such as Newton's Dr. Frank L. Abbey informed his colleagues about the serious consequences to health of smoking through the Kansas Medical Society. 33 Hutchinson High School's Hi-Y Club resolved to accept as members only boys who had pledged never to smoke cigarettes. 34 Yet another manifestation of awareness and popular concern was the anti-smoking lecture, illustrated with numerous lantern slides, given by McPherson dentist, Dr. James W. Fields for more than twenty years beginning in 1915. A prominent Presbyterian layman and lifelong opponent of tobacCo. Dr. Fields spoke before church groups and in schools all over central and western Kansas. The hand colored lantern slides, many obtained from the Kellogg Foundation, featured graphic depictions of diseased hearts and lungs intermixed with such slogans as “The cigarette is the high officer in the Legion of Death.” Audiences were left in no doubt about the addictive and health threatening effects of tobacco in general and, especially, smoking cigarettes. 35 As late as 1939 an attempt to enforce a longstanding ban on smoking in all University of Kansas buildings elicited approval from citizens and such anti-smoking organizations as the WCTU across the state. 36
12. Advertisements for products that allegedly “banished the tobacco habit” are evidence of popular awareness of the difficulties of quitting and they appeared in such general circulation magazines as Popular Mechanics and in Kansas newspapers. 37 The American Medical Association routinely dealt with inquiries about the efficacy of smoking cures by the 1930s. Handbooks for “organizers against the evils of tobacco” were disseminated widely. 38
13. In 1919, Washington University of St. Louis medical student Alton Ochsner, invited to observe the autopsy of an individual diagnosed with lung cancer, was told that he might never see another case of this rare malady. He was not to encounter lung cancer again until 1936 and then saw eight cases--all cigarette smokers who acquired the habit in World War I--in a six month period. Drs. Lombard and Doering noted in the New England Journal of Medicine in 1928 that thirty-four of thirty-five localized incidences of cancer (lung, cheek, jaw) were linked to heavy smoking, and their findings were reported to the public via the mass media. 39 The reported number of lung cancer cases, as related in the New York Times and Science Digest, nearly tripled between 1930 and 1940. 40 In 1938, Time characterized the findings of Dr. Raymond Pearl, Johns Hopkins biologist, on the correlation between smoking and reduced longevity as sufficient to “make tobacco users' flesh creep.” 41
14. Reader's Digest, which achieved the largest circulation of any national magazine and was sold widely in Kansas, undertook a double-barreled campaign against cigarette smoking as early as 1924. Irving Fisher asked, “Does Tobacco Injure the Human Body?,” in Reader's Digest's November, 1924 issue. In this way the arguments of anti-smoking advocates such as Fisher reached a broad readership. Fisher accepted as fact that “we now have sufficient information to determine the effect of tobacco on the human body” and that smoking led to various medical problems. 42 In 1940, Reader's Digest offered “I Quit Smoking or, Cooper's Last Stand,” a story of how deeply writer Courtney Ryley Cooper had been hooked and how he stopped smoking. 43
A revealing amalgam was the December, 1941 Reader's Digest article, “Nicotine Knockout, or the Slow Count,” by former heavyweight boxing champion Gene Tunney. “You do get a ‘lift’ when you light a cigarette,” Tunney stated. “But it's exactly like the lift you get from cocaine, heroin, marijuana.” As Director of the Navy's Physical Fitness Program, Tunney commented, “I can bluntly say that few things could be worse for physical fitness than promoting the tobacco habit.” 44 Scribner's Magazine published an article about tobacco and health in 1930, Newsweek carried the first of numerous articles about addiction to cigarettes in 1934, Time dealt with the topic as early as 1935, and such nationally-distributed periodicals as Good Housekeeping and Commonweal weighed in with feature stories. 45
15. That this message was generally known and understood by the public is indisputable. As syndicated columnist Westbrook Pegler, himself a smoker, wrote in 1942: “Some people ... have suggested that our press has been unwilling to tell the truth about the poisons that people put into themselves by smoking, because we would sacrifice some degree of the public health for the money we get from cigarette advertisements. I don't believe this is true ... I think people would continue to smoke anyway even if we did dig out and print horribly all the old propaganda of the Anti-Cigarette League.... Even though their elders tell them from early childhood that smoking is bad for them and that the habit, once formed, is very hard to break.... I can't even save myself.” 46 In 1954, a Gallup Poll indicated that 89.9 percent of its national sample had heard or read about the presumed connection between smoking and lung cancer. 47 This and subsequent comparably high responses were termed by Gallup “phenomenal ... in polling annals.” 48
16. By World War II in Kansas and across the nation, states mandated instruction about physiology and hygiene, including information about the effects of tobacco and cigarettes. A Kansas schoolboy recalled using a physiology and hygiene text in the 1920s that referred to cigarettes as “coffin nails,” with the teacher explaining that “every cigarette that was smoked had the same effect upon the user as driving a nail into his coffin.” 49 The Kansas Department of Education's curricular recommendations for elementary schools in 1939 featured a unit, “Enemies of Health: Tobacco and Alcohol,” that defined tobacco as a narcotic and stressed the serious effects upon health of smoking cigarettes. 50 By 1947, discussion of tobacco in health education courses was included in the unit: “Stimulants and Narcotics.” 51 A widely-used text for the upper elementary grades during World War II was Healthful Ways. This text had a section on tobacco usage and linked cigarette smoking with heart disease. 52 A text for 7th grade students, The American Health Series: Health Progress referred to cigarettes as a narcotic and discussed the “injurious effects” of tobacco on the heart and circulation. Students were told that “no one, not even a habitual smoker, claims that the use of tobacco improves health.” 53 Reinforcing awareness among Kansas college and university students through World War II was an annual essay contest about the evils of smoking. The First Prize essay for 1943, by Catherine Clegg of Bethel College, discussed the “devastating effects” of an addictive “weed” that entrapped so many people in Kansas and across America. “Now suppose,” she wrote, “that on every tombstone of every man or woman killed by tobacco we could read the words, ‘Killed by Tobacco.’ What a shock it would be to walk through a cemetery and see engraved on innumerable stones that this man died of heart disease, a tobacco heart; and this one died of pneumonia made fatal by tobacco-weakened lungs; and this one died of stomach cancer ... caused by tobacco.” Claiming that “at least” 100,000 deaths per year resulted from smoking, Miss Clegg also condemned the “half-death” of addiction to tobacCo. citing as authority John Harvey Kellogg's Tobaccoism: Or How Tobacco Kills (1922). 54
17. Similar messages appeared in popular media. Hit songs and nationally-distributed Hollywood cartoons cautioned audiences about the dangers of smoking and the risk of becoming addicted to cigarettes. Tex Williams proclaimed the fatal effects of smoking in the 1947 record: “Smoke, Smoke, Smoke That Cigarette.” In Walt Disney's “No Smoking” (1952), Goofy first extolled the rewards of smoking, but a smoker's cough led him to renounce cigarettes. Suffering from withdrawal, Goofy obsessively tried to smoke but was prevented from lighting up by assorted hilarious circumstances. The cartoon's final message was: “Give the smoker enough rope and he'll hang onto his habit.” A testimonial to the addictive power of cigarettes was presented in “No Ifs, Ands, or Butts” (1954), a cartoon shown widely in theaters for many years and still periodically on television. Feature films such as “Saboteur” (1942) and “Mr. Peabody and the Mermaid” (1948) mentioned the difficulties of breaking the smoking habit. Print cartoonists also regularly tackled the smoking-health-addiction relationship. In sum, from the late 19th century through 1945, a period when cigarette smoking experienced phenomenal growth, anti-smoking advocates, groups, and organizations used virtually all available means to get across their message to the American people. Their characterization of smoking cigarettes as injurious to health and associated with dependence and even addiction was largely assimilated into popular awareness.
18. When focusing upon smoking as a threat to the average American's health from World War II through the 1980s, it quickly becomes clear that a large body of information was available to those reading newspapers, giving attention to community affairs, and going to films and watching television--in other words, to anyone living a normal life in America. Such milestones in the debate about smoking and health as the Wynder/Graham studies (1950-1956), the Doll/Hill Study (1952), the pronouncements of Dr. Alton Ochsner (1938 onward), the Hammond/Horn Study (1954-1955), the Auerbach Study (1955-56), the “Seven Experts Study” (1957), the World Health Organization Report (1960), the Royal College of Physician's Report (1962), the Surgeon General Advisory Committee's Report (1964), the Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act (1965), the American Cancer Society's first “Great American Smokeout” (1976), the Surgeon General's Report on Nicotine Addiction (1988), and the 25th anniversary report by the Surgeon General (1989) reaffirmed public concern and engendered continued awareness in the American popular consciousness. These patterns of awareness were manifested in various ways both nationally and in Kansas. Examples from the period, 1949-1965, offer irrefutable evidence of this contention.
19. During these decades, Reader's Digest continued its campaign against cigarettes and this influential periodical was joined by numerous other national magazines. Almost every journal of opinion and magazines ranging from Atlantic, Consumer Reports, Cosmopolitan, and Life to Newsweek, Playboy, Time, and Woman's Home carried features, cartoons, and stories that communicated acceptance of the smoking-health link. 55 Typical was a January, 1950 Reader's Digest piece that asked: “How Harmful Are Cigarettes?” It concluded that “probably no steady smoker” believed smoking had no harmful effects. Accepting the statistical link between smoking and lung cancer, this article stated: “While all other types of cancer were declining in frequency, the age-adjusted death rate for respiratory cancer rose steadily from 3.7 per 100,000 in 1930 to three times that in 1947.” 56 Four years later, Reader's Digest published “The Facts Behind the Cigarette Controversy.” Emphasizing the increasing evidence of a relationship, this article noted: “Before World War I lung cancer was rare. But after 1920 U.S. doctors began to encounter it more and more frequently....” 57 Similar stories appeared in Newsweek, Time, Consumer Reports, and Life, among many others. 58 “Let's stop kidding ourselves about the effects of cigarette smoking,” began an American Mercury feature. 59 Periodicals targeting specialized audiences also provided continuing coverage of this issue. For example, Christian Century published numerous stories about smoking and health in these years. 60 A Stars and Stripes article on September 6, 1947 reported that a University of Chicago medical researcher had told the 4th International Cancer Research Congress in St. Louis that inhaling the smoke of one pack of cigarettes per day for ten years would introduce “eight quarts of cancer-causing tars” into one's body. 61 Stars and Stripes continued to inform its military readership about the subject of smoking's possible health consequences. 62
20. Influential proponents of the relationship between smoking and lung cancer were speaking out across the nation. The Miami Herald reported on July 18, 1950 that three teams of American scientists, including such distinguished individuals as Dr. Alton Ochsner, a highly-respected New Orleans surgeon and then current president of the American Cancer Society, Drs. Ernest L. Wynder and Evarts A. Graham, and Dr. Morton L. Levin, had blamed cigarette smoking for the dramatic increase in lung cancer. 63 Lecturing in Savannah, Georgia, Dr. Ochsner warned that the cancer-smoking link necessitated periodic X-rays for “heavy smokers.” 64 At the annual meeting of the Kansas City Southwest Clinical Society, in September, 1953, Ochsner stated that unless the numbers of those smoking dropped significantly, by 1970 one of every five cancer patients would suffer from lung cancer. 65 Dr. Evarts Graham, Bixby Professor Emeritus of Clinical Surgery at Washington University of St. Louis, also was active in giving public lectures about the damaging effects of cigarette smoking. 66 Replying to an inquiry about smoking and lung cancer in 1954, Dr. Graham said that the “harmful effects” of cigarettes extended to the heart and arteries as well as the lungs. 67 The Reader's Digest printed Dr. Ochsner's blunt statement that “in another decade when our present smoking habits catch up with us ... I am convinced that every heavy smoker will develop lung cancer--unless heart disease or some other sickness claims him earlier.” 68 A 1960 story quoting Dr. E. Cuyler Hammond of the American Cancer Society that the “rarity of lung cancer among non-smokers demonstrates that cigarette smoking increases the probability” of lung cancer was featured in the Kansas City Star and other newspapers widely circulated in Kansas. 69 In March, 1962, the Lawrence Journal-World reported on a link between nicotine and heart disease found by Dr. Duane G. Wenzel, KU Professor of Pharmacy. 70
21. Kansas newspapers provided their readers with continuing documentation of the debate over cigarette smoking and health, with all of the major milestones being covered. At a testimonial dinner for the WCTU in Topeka's Hotel Jayhawk, revered KU basketball coach, Dr. Forrest C. “Phog” Allen, stated that “cigarettes are a worse menace than alcohol” and that numerous cases of lung cancer had been linked to cigarette smoking. 71 “Heavy Smokers Advised to Have Frequent X-Rays” proclaimed the Emporia Gazette, summarizing an interview with Dr. Hammond in February, 1954. 72 Later that year, a hard hitting story by AP science reporter Alton L. Blakeslee on the smoking-lung cancer connection was prominently featured in the Emporia Gazette. 73 The Topeka Daily Capital announced that “British Link Cigs, Cancer” in February, 1954, and in April reported the Kansas State Board of Health's mortality study that lung cancer affecting Kansans had increased 475 percent over the past two decades. 74 A claim by the American Cancer Society that males who quit smoking cigarettes were significantly less likely to die of lung cancer was widely reported. 75 In January, 1957, the Kansas City Kansan informed its readers about Dr. Oscar Auerbach's clinical research on the link between cigarettes and lung cancer and two months later offered a blunt description of the conclusions of the “seven experts report”. 76 Drew Pearson focused on the revelation that cigarettes caused lung cancer in his Washington Merry-Go-Round column, and a Hutchinson News editorial, “Coffin Nails,” noted the mounting weight of evidence regarding a smoking/cancer link. 77 The Emporia Gazette headlined its story about the release of the British Royal College of Surgeons study in March, 1962: “Smoking is Linked with Deaths From Number of Diseases.” 78 Dr. Harold Hyman told readers: “There is a definite relationship between heavy smoking, especially of cigarettes, and diseases of the coronary and other arteries. Common sense dictates kicking the habit.” 79 A November, 1963 feature on the forthcoming report of the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee described it as a “time bomb, ... a strong unequivocal indictment of cigarette smoking as an important cause of lung cancer and other diseases.” 80 A statewide conference on teenage smoking, bringing together 160 students representing more than twenty Kansas high schools, was held at Emporia State Teachers College in December, 1963. 81
22. Public awareness of the 1964 Surgeon General's report was reinforced by press, radio, and television coverage and by very extensive attention paid the conclusions of the report in national periodicals and magazines. For example, the Topeka Capitol-Journal, Hutchinson News, Lawrence Journal-World, Wichita Eagle-Beacon, Kansas City Kansan, Kansas City Star, and Emporia Gazette published daily stories throughout January and thereafter gave steady attention to the report's health implications. “Where There's Smoke...,” observed a Wichita Beacon editorial. 82 “The more you smoke, the greater your risk of an early death” was the Emporia Gazette's summation. 83 Responding to the report, the Kansas Board of Regents banned cigarette sales on all state-supported campuses. 84 Geneseo citizens organized a Smokers Anonymous group. 85 While a debate erupted about possible new local and state laws to limit or ban smoking, to its national and Kansas readership, Reader's Digest, after a review of evidence linking smoking and lung cancer, commented: “In the last analysis, the issue of whether to smoke or not to smoke must be decided by each individual.” 86 Newspapers and mass-circulation magazines distributed in Kansas dealt with the same themes. 87 By 1969, 71 percent of those responding to a Gallup Poll on cigarette smoking believed that smoking caused lung cancer. 88 Eight years later a national poll revealed that 90 percent of Americans were convinced that smoking cigarettes was harmful to one's health.
23. The role of schools in the dissemination of health information to students (and their parents) cannot be underestimated. State laws and curricular policies required teachers to deal with the effects of smoking on health. School texts and supplemental publications such as Weekly Reader and Senior Scholastic discussed the issue extensively during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. For example, Health and Safety for You devoted a chapter to tobacco and observed: “Medical and scientific knowledge leaves no doubt about the harmful effects of smoking” 89 The text linked smoking with heart disease, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis and emphysema, and other illnesses. Already in 1953, Senior Scholastic, widely distributed in Kansas schools, stated that “research has shown that lung cancer is rare in a person who does not smoke.” 90 In 1960 Senior Scholastic quoted Dr. Alton Ochsner in his forthcoming book, Smoking and Cancer, as stating unequivocally that “tobacco is a loaded, often lethal weapon,” and that “time pulls the trigger.” 91
24. Was the message about cigarettes received by students? The answer is overwhelmingly yes, as shown by an “Institute of Student Opinion Poll No. 31,” done for Scholastic Magazines, which polled 10,763 (5,598 girls, 5,165 boys) junior and senior high school students from across the U.S. To the question, “What do you think about cancer and cigarette smoking?”: 19.6% said only a heavy smoker ran a greater risk of lung cancer than non-smoker; 45.4% said all smokers ran a greater risk of lung cancer than non-smokers; 32.2% said there might be some connection but no conclusive evidence existed of a link. Notably, four years before release of the 1964 Surgeon General's report, only 2.6% were persuaded that no connection existed. 92 Seven years later, Senior Scholastic Teacher stated confidently that “the scientific facts on the health hazards of cigarette smoking are no longer debatable. Students on almost all levels have heard that cigarettes are not good for them.” 93
25. Popular awareness about the health-threatening effects of cigarette smoking continued to be reinforced by pervasive attention to the issue by newspapers and national periodicals during the entire period from 1964 to the present. -A most significant source of information Increasingly proved to be television news programs and documentaries. The three major networks began to devote substantial attention to the debate over smoking and health in the mid-1950s. 94 With the release of the Surgeon General's report, Smoking and Health in 1964, television's role in shaping public understanding of the issue expanded rapidly in Kansas and throughout the United States. 95 CBS's Harry Reasoner's report on smoking in 1984 recounted conflict inside the Massachusetts Department of Public Welfare between those hostile to smoking and employees who admitted being “addicted” to cigarettes. The next year, Leslie Stahl on “Face the Nation” observed that despite evidence that smoking caused lung cancer, heart disease, “and is addictive,” 30% of the public continued to smoke. 96 As influential commentator, Paul Harvey, noted in a column dealing with a report in the Annals of Internal Medicine that smoking caused premature aging of skin, people were ignoring generally available information about the health risks. “Don't you know that nudge [about wrinkles] had greater impact than all those surgeons waving scalpels at your lungs,” Harvey sarcastically observed. 97 In counterpoint to claims that movies glamorized smoking were negative references in blockbuster films. Even James Bond--in You Only Live Twice (1969)--warned a villain: “Don't you know those are bad for your chest,” just before annihilating him. Burt Reynolds offered similar advice to Sally Fields in Smokey and the Bandit (1977). 98 An episode of the popular television series, Sanford and Son,” featured Lamont Sanford demanding that his father give up cigarettes. “They are killing you,” he said. 99
26. Documentation about public awareness of the link between cigarette smoking and addiction from 1945 to the present closely parallels the material presented for smoking and health and, thus, only a few examples will be needed to illustrate that broad popular understanding of this relationship existed. Such new slang terms as “fag fiend,” “nicotine fit,” “hooked,” and “cold turkey” explicitly linked cigarette smoking and addiction. That these terms earned broad popular acceptance in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, despite the reluctance of scientists who had not yet found absolute proof to characterize the habit of cigarette smoking as addictive, merely confirms a basic axiom of the historian that people tend to act according to what they believe to be “truth” and not what may in fact be reality. The typical man or woman in the street was convinced that cigarette smoking was a nasty, deadly, difficult-to-break habit and that, by common definition, meant it was addictive. John A. Moore made precisely this point in his popular manual about quitting, How to Stop Cigarettes for Life. 100 Initiatives multiplied by governmental agencies (such as the U.S. Department of Public Health, the Interagency Council on Smoking and Health, and the Kansas Department of Health and Environment) and health organizations to reinforce public awareness and understanding of the dangers associated with smoking. 101 The historical evidence presented in this affidavit is overwhelming that in America popular awareness of cigarettes, their danger to personal health, and their “addictive” potential was often ahead of technical and scientific opinion on the subject. Illustrating the point are examples of public awareness prior to the Surgeon General's pronouncement about smoking and addiction in 1988.
27. A recurrent feature in newspapers across the nation was the “my battle to quit smoking” story. One in January, 1954 observed: “Anybody who says the hold cigarettes has on a person is mostly ‘psychological’ is, for my money somebody who hasn't tried ‘em. It's a subtle hold, too--and so strong we don't expect that this piece, or a thousand similar articles, would have any effect whatever....” 102 The St. Louis Post-Dispatch reported that most cigarette smokers thought the habit “is a major cause of lung cancer and are not pleased to be smokers.” Dr. Daniel Horn of the American Cancer Society commented that these results demonstrated cigarette smoking was addictive. “If it were not an addiction, ... one would think that persons who thought it a cause of lung cancer would give it up.” 103 The Reader's Digest regularly reprinted its smoking/addiction articles, and in November, 1954, published “How I Stopped Smoking,” by columnist Stewart Alsop. Referring to smoking as a habit and as dependency, Alsop admitted: “It is humiliating to feel the fear which a compulsive smoker feels at the mere idea of living without tobacco.” 104 In 1962 a Coffeyville reporter described his struggle to quit smoking in a story carried by the Emporia Gazette and distributed by AP. 105
28. After release of the Surgeon General's 1964 report, stories proliferated about man/woman-in-street reactions. The Wichita Beacon noted that “the smoking problem had been making headlines for years” and surveyed the attempts of Kansans to “kick the habit”--using legislative coercion and moral condemnation--since the late 19th century. 106 During a televised panel discussion on smoking, an Emporia housewife, when asked if women were talking about the issue, said: “That's about all I hear any more.... I would say that almost every friend I have is trying to give up the habit.” 107 “Most Puffers Puff On, But Some Take Heed,” the Kansas City Star announced. 108 “I feel like I am lighting an atom bomb every time I light a cigarette,” a KU student said, but she admitted she probably would not quit. 109 A UPI article by Louis Cassels in late January, 1964 stated that the Surgeon General's report understated the problem by admitting that “smokers usually develop some degree of dependence upon the practice.” Cassels said smoking was an addiction and that quitting required “will power, based on a clear and unwavering conviction that the things really are, as grandfather used to say, ‘coffin nails.’ One way to acquire this conviction is to sit down and read the committee's 387-page report.” 110
29. In May, 1964, “The Dilemma of the ‘Problem Smoker” appeared in the Reader's Digest. This article differentiated between addiction and habituation but noted--whether physiological or behavioral mechanisms were involved-- quitting was not easily accomplished. 111 The popular “advice” columnist, Ann Landers, printed numerous letters from those “addicted to tobacco.” 112 The U.S. Children's Bureau launched a nationwide anti-smoking campaign aimed at school children that stressed the difficulty of quitting. “Some people can't stop biting their fingernails. This is a bad habit and it is hard to stop it. Cigarettes are bad habits. Many people get used to smoking them and then find it is very hard to stop,” the booklet warned. 113 Senior Scholastic provided a pragmatic perspective on the issue of addiction. After reviewing the Surgeon General's 1964 report, it said the public had to decide what to do. “Like so many other matters, smoking seems to come down in the last analysis to a personal choice.” 114 As recently as 1988, Jack E. White, writing in Time, confessed that he was “a slave to cigarettes,” and one of many “nicotine freaks who have tried repeatedly to kick the habit and failed....” 115
30. Addiction was dealt with extensively by the visual media. In Damn Yankees (1958), Russ Brown advised Tab Hunter that the “only thing that comes easy is the cigarette trick. Now I'm trying to break myself of the filthy habit.” Barbara Streisand sought professional help for her admitted addiction in On A Clear Day You Can See Forever (1970). Films such as Cold Turkey (in which an entire town sought to give up smoking cigarettes), and--most recently--Blue in the Face reaffirmed popular stereotypes about the addictive character of smoking. Television news programs and documentaries stressed the smoking addiction relationship. Edward R. Murrow's “See It Now” examined cigarettes and lung cancer in 1955. 116 President Dwight D. Eisenhower's statement in 1957 during a filmed press conference about his decision to quit smoking was publicized widely via television. 117 CBS broadcast its highly-publicized “National Smoking Test” in 1968. Onward through the 1970s and 1980s, television documented the public's concern about the habit of cigarette smoking. In 1985, CBS's “60 Minutes” admitted that the anti-smoking campaign had not curbed America's appetite for cigarettes. 118 By the 1980s, awareness about the addictive and health-threatening aspects of smoking cigarettes was so widely accepted that Avalon Hill, makers of popular board games, released “Smokers Wild,” described as a “blend of fun and macabre humor derived from one of the world's worst habits smoking.” 119 The Surgeon General's 1988 report on nicotine addiction simply confirmed what most Americans had believed for decades.
31. In conclusion, an enormous mass of documentation about smoking's effects is available to anyone who examines the historical record. Whether the historian writes political or social history, he or she can recreate an accurate account of what happened within the context of the times being portrayed. The examples I have provided in this affidavit could be multiplied many, many times. They constitute only a small part of the research that I have conducted. However, in my professional opinion, this research has yielded persuasive evidence that for more than two hundred years and all through the 20th century information from a wide range of sources about the health-threatening and addictive consequences of smoking was widely available to both Americans and to residents of Kansas.
The foregoing facts are stated, under oath, upon my personal knowledge.
Footnotes
1 James I, King, A Counter-Blaste to Tobacco (New York: Rodale Press, 1954, reprint edition).
2 Cotton Mather, Manudictio ad Ministerium: Directions to a Candidate of the Ministry (Boston, 1726), 46; reprint ed., 1938, 133.
3 Quoted in M.E. Poland, The Truth About Tobacco (Bethany, West Virginia: No-Tobacco League of America, 1915), 40.
4 John Quincy Adams to S. H. Cox, 19 August 1845, Arents Collection, Vol. IV, 3264C, New York Public Library, New York City.
5 J. B. Wight, Tobacco: Its Use and Abuse (Columbia, SC, 1889), 180.
6 Charles B. Towns, “Injury of Tobacco and Its Relation to Other Drug Habits,” The Century, 83 (March, 1912), 770. 7 New York Times, October 27, 1905.
8 William A. McKeever, Farm Boys and Girls (New York: Macmillan Company, 1912), 205.
9 See the characterizations of cigarette smoking in the New York Times throughout the 1880s and 1890s and, for example, the following anti-smoking stories: New York Times, January 11, 1891; Raleigh News and Observer, February 21, 1897; Seattle Times, June 13, 1909.
10 E.A. King, The Cigarette and Youth (Newport, N.Y.: Central Anti-Cigarette League, 1896), 5-6.
11 Laura M. Johns, An Appeal to Kansas Teachers in Behalf of Temperance, Health, and Moral Purity (Topeka: Kansas Publishing House, 1889), 14-15. A foreword stated: “This pamphlet ... is mailed to each school superintendent and to each of the 11,500 teachers in the public schools of this State,” Kansas Collection, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS.
12 Ch. 92, Art. 6: 6037, General Statutes of Kansas, 1899 (Topeka, KS: Crane and Company, 1900), 1187; e.g.: Ch. 246, House Bill No. 2142 (Approved April 22, 1985), State of Kansas, 1985 Session Laws of Kansas (Topeka, KS: State Printing Office, 1985), 1145.
13 The Interstate Schoolman (incorporating The Kansas Educator), vol. 9, no. 1 (Hutchinson, KS: January, 1911), 14.
14 William O. Krohn and S.J. Crumbine, Graded Lessons in Physiology and Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1912). This text stated: “Tobacco is especially injurious to the young. It stunts growth, weakens the nerves, stupefies the brain cells, ... is apt to irritate the linings of the mouth and throat, and in many cases seriously affects the heart.” Further, “tobacco has the effect of a narcotic on most people.” Krohn and Crumbine concluded that tobacco's effect upon adults was “always toward injury” and that cigarette smoking was especially harmful, 60-62.
15 L.1909, ch. 237 (March 5, 1909), General Statutes of Kansas, 1909 (Topeka, KS: Crane and Company, 1910), 2930: 644.
16 Anna A. Gordon, ed., The White Ribbon Birthday Book: A Selection For Each Day From the Best Writers Among Women (Chicago, IL: Woman's Temp. Pub. Association, 1887), 56.
17 New York Times, July 12, 1901.
18 W.C.T.U., Our Messenger: Clay Center edition, XXII, no. 10 (August, 1907), 3.
19 See, for example, The War Cry's issues for May 23, 1908 and June 20, 1908.
20 See, for example, George J. Fisher, “Is Smoking Injurious?,” Association Men, 38, no. 3 (December, 1912), 22. 21 Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, “The Little White Slaver,” Good Housekeeping (January, 1916), 91. 22 The Survey, XXXVII, no. 17 (January 27, 1917), 494.
23 Professor McKeever, author of “The Cigarette Smoking Boy” and other anti-smoking tracts, enlisted the University of Kansas Extension Division in the crusade against the cigarette. A featured topic in the Extension Division “package libraries” for women's clubs in 1916-17 was “the cigarette,” and McKeever arranged for “The Cigarette Problem: A Plan for Enlisting the Boys of Kansas in a Campaign against the Juvenile Use of Nicotine,” to be distributed by KU's Extension Division. See Department of Child Welfare files, University Extension Division, University of Kansas Archives, Spencer Research Library, Lawrence, KS.
24 Frances Warfield, “Lost Cause: A Portrait of Lucy Page Gaston,” Outlook, 124 (16 February 1930), 244-47, 259. 25 Quoted in Joseph C. Robert, The Story of Tobacco in America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952), 247.
26 “Committee to Study the Tobacco Problem,” n.d., Folder 5, John Harvey Kellogg Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
27 See, for example, James Jefferies, “Tobacco a Poison Closely Allied with Narcotics,” The Bulletin, I, no. 8 (September, 1927), 4; Charles C. Rarick, “Eminent Authorities Who Condemn the Cigarette,” Methodist Board of Temperance, no. 88 (1925), 1-3; and “Charles M. Fillmore, Tobacco Taboo (Indianapolis, IN: No-Tobacco League, 1928).
28 Special story from Lawrence, Kansas to the New York Sun, March 2, 1921.
29 Canton (Ohio) Repository; Emporia Gazette, October 10, 1926.
30 See the statements of Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, Editor of Good Housekeeping, and Dr. Howard A. Kelly of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, House of Representatives, 69th Congress., 1st Sess., Hearings before the Committee on Education: Conference on Narcotic Education (Washington, DC: GPO, 1926), 143-145
31 Hon. Reed Smoot, “Extension of Pure Food and Drugs Act to Tobacco and Tobacco Products,” Congressional Record, June 10, 1929 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1929). 3-12.
32 Wooster's edict read: “Hereafter no recommendations for school positions will be made for teachers, instructors or superintendents who use tobacco in any form. No State certificates or institute certificates will be issues to tobacco users. Schools and colleges which permit the use of tobacco by administrators, heads, instructors, or pupils cannot remain on the accredited list ... This notification is in compliance with the laws of Kansas.” AP story, “Kansas Education Department Torn Asunder by the Anti-Tobacco Crusade,” Santa Fe New Mexican, August 15, 1920; “Tobacco Users Barred from Teaching,” New York Herald, April 28, 1920, and numerous other clippings in Tobacco-History file, Manuscript Department, KSHS. For biographical information about “Lizzie” Wooster, see Lydia Mayfield, “Lizzie Wooster,” Kanhistique (May, 1981), 6-7.
33 Dr. Frank L. Abbey, “Tobacco--Its Use and Abuse,” Journal of the Kansas Medical Society, XXV, no. 3 (March, 1925), 65-70. Among the authorities cited by Dr. Abbey was a “Dr. Lorand of Carlsbad” who named tobacco one of “Ten Greatest Life Shortening Habits,” 69.
34 “Wage a Fight Upon TobacCo.” Hutchinson Herald, September 25, 1925.
35 This set of ninety-eight lantern slides about the moral and medical dangers of using tobacco was discovered in an unprocessed collection of slides donated by a daughter of Dr. James W. Fields to the Kansas State Historical Society. Some information about Dr. James W. Fields is in Dale W. Fields, Tales of Cedar Lawn Farm (Fairfield, WA: Ye Galleon Press, 1982), 133-134, 302-306.
36 Mrs. Nellie E. Schneider, Secretary, Manhattan West End Woman's Christian Temperance Union, to Chancellor Deane W. Malott, 20 October 1939, and A. S. Strain to Chancellor Malott, 19 October 1939, Deane W. Malott Papers, University Archives, University of Kansas. Mr. Strain, a retired postal worker, characterized smoking cigarettes as a “filthy habit forming evil.” Similarly, Miss Esther Singmaster, State President of the Kansas Youth Temperance Council, wrote from Ft. Scott: “It is time a few more people were waking up to the fact that cigarets are one of the worst enemies of America. So many young people start the habit in fun; and when it's too late to quit this instrument of death, they discover their mistake,” Esther Singmaster to Chancellor Malott, 31 October 1939, Malott Papers.
37 See, for example, “Stop Using Tobacco: Let Us Help You to Banish the Habit,” Popular Mechanics (March, 1932), 29. A widely-disseminated pamphlet, Tobacco Redeemer (St. Louis, MO: The Newell Company, [1930s]), championed a “home treatment for the tobacco habit.” It began: “Tobacco Slaves. Are you one? Are you getting tired of paying daily tribute to that inexorable master--King Tobacco?” It then asked: “Why continue a habit if it is undermining your health, wrecking your nervous system, causing you loss of appetite and loss of sleep and costing you money that you could use to a real advantage....” This treatment boasted 300,000 satisfied customers.
38 Richard J. Walsh, The Burning Shame of America: An Outline Against Nicotine (Mount Vernon, NY: William Edwin Rudge Printing House, 1924).
39 New York Times, September 20, 1928; Current History, 30 (September, 1929).
40 New York Times. October 26, 1940; Science Digest (November, 1940).
41 Time (March 4, 1938).
42 Reader's Digest (November, 1924), 435-436.
43 Reader's Digest (July, 1940), 32.
44 Reader's Digest (December, 1941), 21-24.
45 Scribner's Magazine, 88 (October, 1930); Newsweek 3, (February 24, 1934); Time, 26 (July 29, 1935); Good Housekeeping, 89 (August, 1929); Commonweal, 25 (April 9, 1937).
46 Westbrook Pegler, “Fair Enough,” New York World Telegram. September 2, 1942.
47 Gallup Poll, June, 1954, cited in “Smoking and News: Coverage of a Decade of Controversy,” Columbia Journalism Review (Summer, 1963), 7-8.
48 Cleveland Plain Dealer, July 24, 1957.
49 Ralph M. Hope, “Life at Its Best,” [September, 1981], Smoking Miscellany Files, Kansas State Historical Society, Topeka, KS.
50 State of Kansas, Department of Education, Health Education for Elementary Schools (Topeka, KS: Kansas State Printing Plant, 1939), 22-25.
51 Kansas Department of Education, Health and Physical Education for Kansas Elementary Schools (Topeka, KS: Ferd Voiland, State Printer, 1947), 88-89.
52 W.W. Charters, Dean F. Smiley, Ruth M. Strang, Healthful Ways (New York: Macmillan, 1941), 125-26.
53 Charles C. Wilson, John L. Bracken, Helen B. Pryor, and John C. Almack, The American Health Series: Health Progress, Grade VII (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1948), 74, 133, 136, 336, 337. A more sophisticated version of this text for 8th grade students discussed smoking in greater detail. The link between smoking and various diseases was presented as self-evident. The authors quoted Oliver Wendell Holmes: “I think tobacco often does a great deal of harm to the health.... I myself gave it up many years ago.” After a recap of problems believed to result from smoking, the text concluded: “Excessive use of tobacco may decrease the number of years a person may live,.” ibid. VIII, 117, 121, 122.
54 This and other essays are in Anti-Smoking Essays file, History-Tobacco Collection, Manuscripts Department, Kansas State Historical Society, Topeka, Kansas.
55 See, for example, the entries relating to smoking cigarettes in Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, 1945-1987. 56 Reader's Digest (January, 1950), 7-8.
57 Reader's Digest (July, 1954), 2-4.
58 For example, “Cigarettes and Cancer,” Newsweek, 40 (November 3, 1952); “Smoking and Cancer,” Time, 60 (December 22, 1952), “Cigarette Smoking and Lung Cancer,” Consumer Reports, 19 (February, 1954); and “Smoke Gets in the News, Life, 35 (December 21, 1953).
59 Allan J. Ryan, “Will You Gamble on Smoking?,” American Mercury, 79, no. 3 (August, 1954), 13.
60 See “Cigarettes and Cancer,” LXX, no. 50 (December 16, 1953), 1445, Christian Century; “New Cigarette-Cancer Link is Found,” LXXII, no. 25 (June 22, 1955), 724-25, ibid; “Coffin Nails Take Another Beating,” LXII, no. 38 (September 21, 1955), 1077, ibid.
61 Stars and Stripes (Pacific Edition), September 6, 1947.
62 See Stars and Stripes: Pacific Edition, November, 1954, October, 1957 for examples of this coverage.
63 They were delivering papers at the 5th International Cancer Research Congress in Paris, France, Miami Herald, July 18, 1950.
64 “Cancer Increase High for Smokers,” Miami Herald, May 13, 1953.
65 Dr. Alton Ochsner, “Bronchogenic Cancer,” Edward Holman Skinner Memorial Lecture, Kansas City Southwest Clinical Society, printed in Kansas City Medical Journal, 29, no. 6 (November-December, 1953), 5-10.
66 Edwin W. Mills to Dr. Evarts A. Graham, October 27, 1949, Box 104, Evarts A. Graham Papers, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.
67 Dr. Evarts Graham to Francis Bryan, November 26, 1954, Folder 3. Box 104, Graham Papers, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.
68 “The Growing Horror of Lung Cancer,” condensed from Today's Health. in Reader's Digest (March, 1959), 110. 69 Kansas City Star, Hutchinson News, Wichita Eagle, March 22, 1960..
70 “KU Prof Studying Nicotine's Effect as Heart Danger,” Lawrence Journal-World, March 7, 1962. 71 “Tobacco Message Cited by Dr. Allen,” Topeka Daily Capital, September 5, 1953.
72 Emporia Gazette, February 22, 1954.
73 Emporia Gazette, November 11, 1954.
74 Topeka Daily Capital, February 13, 1954; “State Reports Huge Increase in Lung Cancer Death Rate,” Topeka Daily Capital, April 24, 1954..
75 Emporia Gazette, Topeka State Journal, June 6, 1955.
76 “Report New Evidence as to Cigarettes and Lung Cancer,” Kansas City Kansan, January 28, 1957; “Report Blames Cigarette Smoking for Lung Cancer,” Kansas City Kansan, March 22, 1957.
77 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round, “Behind Cigarette Probe,” August 18, 1957, Hutchinson News; “Coffin Nails,” Hutchinson News, July 8, 1958.
78 Emporia Gazette, March 8, 1962.
79 Dr. Hyman column, Kansas City Kansan, August 30, 1962.
80 “Smoking and Health,” Emporia Gazette, November 16, 1963.
81 This meeting, sponsored by the Kansas Division of the ACS and the Kansas State High School Activities Association, was intended to “inform youth leaders of the health risk involved in cigarette smoking,” and to enlist ... teenagers in the society's life-saving program concerning cigarette smoking and lung cancer,” Emporia Gazette, December 4, 1963 and follow up story on December 9, 1963.
82 Wichita Beacon, January 13, 1964.
83 “Nation Gets New Report on Smoking: Advisory Group Tells of Affect on Life, Health,” Emporia Gazette, January 11, 1964.
84 “Cigarette Sales Banned at KU,” University Daily Kansan, March 17, 1964.
85 “Anti-Fag Forces Form at Geneseo,” Hutchinson News, January 16, 1964.
86 See Emporia Gazette, January 17, 1964; Reader's Digest (April, 1964), 76.
87 See, for example, “The Surgeon General's Report,” Business Week (January 18, 1964), 42-44; “Health Hazard,” Newsweek 63 (January 20, 1964), 48-50; “Government Report,” Time, 83 (January 17, 1964), 42; “Latest on Tobacco and Health,” U.S. News and World Report 56 (January 20, 1964), 44-45; and “The Surgeon General's Report,” Life, 56 (January 24, 1964), 56A-62.
88 Survey #785, “Cigarette Smoking,” September 4, 1969, in George H. Gallup, ed., The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935-1971, 3 vols. (New York: Random House, 1972), III, 2213.
89 John M. Lampe, Charles D. Oviatt, and Franklin C. Vaughn, Health and Safety for You (4th edition, New York: McGraw Hill, 1975), 96.
90 Senior Scholastic (October 14, 1953), 18.
91 Senior Scholastic (January 14, 1960), 18.
92 Senior Scholastic (February 17, 1960), 27.
93 Senior Scholastic Teacher (November 16, 1967), 18.
94 Edward R. Murrow's two-part report, “Smoking and Lung Cancer,” on CBS's “See It Now,” originally broadcast in late May and early June, 1955, was a watershed in television coverage.
95 See, for example, the CBS news program, “Cigarettes: A Collision of Interests,” which was broadcast in Kansas City by KMBC at 6:30 p.m., April 15, 1964, Kansas City Star, “TV Previews,” April 15, 1964.
96 “Passive Smoking and Second-Hand Smoke,” CBS, “Face the Nation,” 1985.
97 Paul Harvey column: “Lung Cancer Didn't Scare; Vanity May,” Brazosport Facts, December 26, 1971.
98 “You oughta give up smoking. It's bad for your health,” Burt told Sally, who was puffing on a cigarette during a highspeed car chase.
99 Sanford and Son, “A Matter of Life and Breath,” originally shown in February, 1972.
100 John A. Moore, How to Stop Cigarettes for Life (Mount Vernon, NY: John Oliver Company, 1964), 42.
101 The activities sponsored by the Kansas Tuberculosis and Health Association in the 1960s and 1970s, for example, included press releases, pamphlets, conferences, films, and anti-smoking commercials aired by Topeka, Wichita, and Kansas City television stations. See “Health Education in Kansas” file, Kansas Collection, University of Kansas Libraries, Lawrence, KS.
102 Kansas City Star, January 1, 1954.
103 St. Louis Post-Dispatch, March 10, 1962.
104 Reader's Digest (November, 1954), 27, 30.
105 Emporia Gazette, September 17, 1963.
106 “Kansans Stopped Smoking Once,” Wichita Beacon, January 12, 1964.
107 “Emporians Discuss Smoking,” Emporia Gazette, January 25, 1964.
108 Kansas City Star, January 13, 1964.
109 “Puffing Continues in City: Smoking Report Causes Stir,” Lawrence Journal-World, January 14, 1964. 110 Stars and Stripes: Pacific Edition, January 22, 1964.
111 Reader's Digest (May, 1964), 64.
112 See, for example, the Ann Landers column, “Wife Quits Non-Smoking Pact,” Emporia Gazette, August 7, 1965, and “Smoking Criticism Gets Results,” Emporia Gazette, June 27, 1966.
113 U.S. Children's Bureau, “Why Nick the Cigarette is Nobody's Friend,” Publication No. 447 (Washington, 1966), 3. 114 Senior Scholastic (February 21, 1964), 17.
115 Jack E. White, “Confessions of a Nicotine Freak,” Time (April 18, 1988).
116 This program was broadcast by CBS affiliates at various times. For example, KMBC, in Kansas City aired it at 8:30 p.m., May 31, 1955, and a second installment was shown on the following Tuesday, June 7, 1955, Kansas City Star, May 31, 1955.
117 Acknowledging that he had been a heavy smoker, President Eisenhower said: “No doctor ever told me I should stop. But for me it was easier to just stop and I will only say this...if a person turns their mind to something else and quits pitying themselves about it they won't find it nearly as hard as they figured,” author's transcription of President Dwight D. Eisenhower press conference, May 31, 1957. See New York Times, July 1, 1957.
118 In an interview Geraldine Brooks admitted: “I was an addict. I used to smoke 60 cigarettes a day,” CBS, “60 Minutes,” “Cigarettes and the Public Health,” 1985.
119 “Smokers Wild: The Hilarious Anti-Smoking Game,” copyright 1981 by Avalon Hill Game Company, Baltimore, Md.