Introduction

Adolescents are physically, cognitively, and socioemotionally more advanced than children but prone to behave in ways that are inconsistent with adult values and norms. Adolescents are frequently caricaturized as excessive risk takers, overly self-focused, and highly susceptible to social pressure. Despite agreement that such a portrayal is an oversimplification, the field is still searching for a framework to explain why these tendencies are more common in adolescents than in children or adults. One influential approach, the dual-systems model (1), conceptualizes behavior in terms of a competition or conflict between developing neural circuits implicated in reward sensitivity and cognitive control, and describes how the functioning of these networks may relate to adolescents’ risk taking. Another prominent approach considers contributions of networks that process social information to understand adolescents’ social reorientation, in which social influences expand beyond the family to emphasize peers (2). However, these models do not account for the contributions of identity- and self-related processes, such as core personal values and self-verification, to motivated adolescent behavior. This gap is disconcerting because the self represents a key intersection among social, cognitive, affective, motivational, and regulatory processes (3).

To address this gap, we propose a neurobiologically grounded model of value-based decision making that more flexibly accommodates more diverse inputs to behavior, such as considerations related to self and identity that are relevant in adolescence and can promote or prevent risky behavior depending on context. We first review adolescents’ development of self and identity, linking the behavioral and neural levels. We then outline the general value-based decision-making approach and describe the predictions of this model in the context of adolescent development. Our goal is to produce a more flexible, comprehensive account of adolescent behavior – one that might improve adolescent outcomes, as well as enhance our understanding of positive and prosocial development in adolescence.

The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence

Adolescence is crucial for many aspects of developing self and identity, including commitments, personal goals, motivations, and psychosocial well-being (4–7). During adolescence, youth seek autonomy, particularly from parents, along with increased commitments to social aspects of identity and greater needs for connection with peers (8). Relatedly, self-evaluations become increasingly differentiated and complex across roles and relationships (9). Adolescents also frequently report greater self-consciousness, and are more concerned with and interested in others’ perceptions of self (10).

Given the theoretical and empirical prominence of changes in aspects of self and identity during adolescence, researchers have begun to examine how they are expressed at a neural level. Most of this work has examined self-evaluation, typically by asking youth to judge whether various (often overtly positive or negative) traits and attributes describe them. Like adults, children and early adolescents use cortical and subcortical midline structures, in particular the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and adjacent rostral/perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), more when evaluating themselves than when evaluating others (10–12; although this pattern can be attenuated with close others like adolescents’ best friends; 13, 14). Even in clinical populations of children and adolescents, the vmPFC is usually more active during self-evaluations than most control conditions. Typically developing youth also seem to use the vmPFC more during self-evaluations than do youth with autism spectrum disorder (3) and, at times, youth experiencing depression (15, 16).

We are just beginning to learn more about how neural responses elicited by self-evaluation develop across adolescence, rather than between childhood or adolescence and adulthood. In two studies on the self-reference effect in memory (wherein information evaluated in relation to the self is remembered more accurately than other information), activity in the rostral/perigenual ACC increased from ages 7 to 13 during encoding for self versus mother (17), and from ages 13 to 19 during encoding for self versus distant other (18).

Furthermore, in a longitudinal fMRI study, responses to self-evaluations in the rostral/perigenual ACC (and ventral striatum, VS) self-evaluations were stable from age 10 to 13 (19). Activity also increased in the vmPFC over time during evaluations of self (relative to other), especially for self-evaluations in the social (versus academic) domain, and in adolescents with more advanced pubertal development during social self-evaluations. This suggests the interrelated biological and social changes associated with puberty may affect self-referential processes and the value derived from them.

Although these studies of self-evaluative processes emphasized the vmPFC and adjacent rostral/perigenual ACC, several other regions were also important. As mentioned earlier, VS responses have been observed not only during direct self-evaluations (19), but also in indirect (reflected) social self-evaluations, specifically when an adolescent thinks about what a best friend thinks of his or her social abilities (14). The involvement of VS during self-evaluation is consistent with studies of adults, which highlight the overlap between self-reference and reward (20) through assigning value (21). Additionally, the dorsal medial PFC (dmPFC) and the temporal-parietal junction (TPJ) are sometimes more active in children’s and adolescents self-evaluations (10, 11, 18); in adults, these regions are typically attuned to mentalizing, social perspective taking, and evaluating others. Furthermore, functional connectivity between the TPJ and the vmPFC relates positively to generosity in adults (22), suggesting that the TPJ might affect social value by modulating the vmPFC during choices involving the self and others.

In summary, in research using functional neuroimaging, explicit self-evaluation as well as more indirect forms of social self-evaluation implicated in relational identity robustly engage the vmPFC and the rostral/perigenual ACC (as part of a broader network including the VS, TPJ, and dmPFC) in children and adolescents, often more so than in adults. Activity in the vmPFC and rostral/perigenual ACC seems to increase from late childhood through middle adolescence, when it either plateaus or continues to increase. These findings are consistent with empirical evidence and theoretical proposals that adolescence is critical for developing identity (4–7).Despite the behavioral and neural evidence of the elevated importance of self- and identity-related processes during adolescence, what role these processes may play in neurodevelopmental models of adolescent behavior is unclear. Dual-systems models in particular focus on a mismatch between mature reward-related circuitry and immature cognitive control circuitry (1). However, self/identity does not fit clearly in either category because it can contribute alternately or concurrently to reward-seeking and regulatory behavior. For example, a teenager with an emerging academic identity is likely to prioritize studying over other activities, though it is unclear whether the effect of such an identity operates through rewarding or regulatory processes (or both, or if this distinction is not meaningful theoretically for self/identity). In the next section, we present a model that prioritizes self- and identity-related processes in determining behavior and explains a prominent functional role of the vmPFC during this period.

Value-Based Decision Making as a Mechanism of Motivated Behaviors in Adolescence

Choosing to attend a party where there may be alcohol as well as an attractive classmate against parental wishes and despite math tutoring in the morning sounds like a failure of self-control—to parents, at least. But from an adolescent’s point of view, this decision might be driven by the high subjective value of partying and associated opportunities relative to some alternative, like studying algebra. This should not be surprising; researchers noted decades ago that adolescents routinely chose to behave in ways that are of optimal utility for their social microenvironments (23), and utility-maximizing functions can account for decisions like this one made by people at any age (24, 25). However, researchers have recently characterized the computational and neural processes involved in value-based decision making, defined as either-or choices between two or more options with varied attributes (26). In a value-based decision-making approach, diverse gains and costs are integrated in a dynamic and noisy way to yield choices (see Figure 1; relevant inputs are specific to a given choice and not necessarily confined to one—e.g., parental incentives for good grades are both tangible and social rewards). As we describe next, this flexibility is a key feature of the model. The gains and costs (represented throughout the brain) act as inputs to the process, and are integrated in the vmPFC after being weighted and transformed into a common neural value currency (27).

Figure 1. Value-based decision-making in adolescence Note. Solid arrows from value inputs represent positive value, dashed arrows represent negative value, and line thickness indicates relative weight. Sample tangible inputs (primary or secondary gains and costs) are tagged in orange, sample social inputs are tagged in blue, and sample self/identity related inputs are tagged in purple. Value inputs can be cross-tagged. Adapted from (27).

From this perspective, one cause of what adults consider to be problematic adolescent behavior may be a normative developmental process that increases the subjective value of self- and identity-relevant inputs relative to childhood. The increased activity observed in the vmPFC during self-evaluation and relational identity processes in adolescence overlaps spatially with the representation of value in the brain (see Figure 2), and thus could reflect greater subjective value afforded to the self and its varied traits, roles, and aspirations. This suggests that identity and other associated self-related processes may increase as a source of value to shape decision-making and motivated behavior across adolescence.

Figure 2. Developmental self-evaluation studies and value Note. Regions in red are likely to appear in studies using the term value, calculated by Neurosynth’s automated meta-analysis tool. Peaks from studies of self-evaluation using typically developing adolescents are overlayed. Blue represents peaks from the self > other contrast in child or adolescent samples, and green represents peaks that show increases during self-evaluation with age. Slices are displayed at x = −6, y = 44, and z = −10. To be included here, studies had to report activations in medial prefrontal cortex from the contrast of self > other from a developmental sample or changes in that contrast with age. A full list of studies and coordinates can be found at: http://osf.io/64qh5.

Value-based choice describes decision making as the output of a unified value-accumulation process centered in the vmPFC. The valuation process integrates signals from regions that represent relevant attributes of choice (e.g., self-related value in the mPFC, social values in the TPJ, abstract goals such as health in the lateral PFC). We note two aspects of this process of value integration: First, we do not presume it to be deliberative; in other words, inputs are integrated computationally without relying on explicit reasoning. The model allows for rational decision making independent of formal reasoning, unlike fuzzy-trace theory’s distinction between decisions based on explicit reasoning and those based on intuition or gist (28). Second, a value-based decision-making approach accounts explicitly for the diversity of inputs, and recognizes that these inputs may not fall neatly into consistent clusters. For example, hot processes such as reward and cold processes such as regulation do not necessarily map on to risky and safe behaviors, respectively, and do not necessarily oppose one another. As such, observed activations in two or more regions during choice might reflect simultaneous contributions to value integration rather than competition or inhibition (see 29 for a similar point and a more integrative account).

Dissolving the one-to-one mapping between process (e.g., hot versus cold or reward versus regulation) and outcome (e.g., risky and safe) averts the issue that can arise when these inputs are funneled through two systems that battle for control over behavior (e.g., 1, 30). The most important distinction in a value-based decision-making model is in fact not between types of processes, but between factors that contribute to the value of one behavior or another. For example, what matters in this model is which behavior is promoted by social influence, regardless of whether it is hot or cold. By refocusing on the many diverse reasons for potential behaviors, the model also suggests new experimental paradigms that manipulate the motivating reasons behind a behavior, as well as new pathways for intervention from the variety of value inputs to choice, rather than just two processes (reward and control) whose functioning is mainly determined by neurodevelopment.

The Identity-Value Model (31) expands on this general value-based decision-making approach by emphasizing the special role of identity in self-regulation and motivated behavior broadly. The central hypothesis of the Identity-Value Model is that goal-directed behaviors are valued more when they are relevant to the identity. Consider the previously mentioned example: If the adolescent had a strong academic identity commitment, the identity might boost the chance of skipping the party by increasing the value of studying. If, instead, the adolescent wished to fit in with a peer group that valued late-night socializing, that aspect of identity would increase the value of going to the party.

The model considers identity as multifaceted, so different aspects of identity (e.g., academic, social/relational, familial, ethnic/cultural, interest-based) can influence the value of self-regulatory behaviors to the extent that such aspects are salient and perceived as relevant to the decision (see also 32). Key features of identity thought to facilitate its effectiveness in adulthood include stability, positivity, and accessibility. Given that identity development is considered a core task of adolescence (33), and evidence suggests significant exploration of and commitments to key identities during this period (4, 5, 7), we expect identity-relevant inputs to increase in value across adolescence, affecting self-regulation and other motivated behaviors. Additionally, identities and behaviors might be reinforced mutually: aspects of identity that favor consistently chosen actions might be more valued, and aspects of identity that favor actions that are consistently not chosen might be less valued (e.g., through dissonance or reward-devaluation processes; 34).

Additional Developmental Considerations for Value-Based Decision Making

One important consideration is the extent of developmental change in the decision-making processes implicated in this model. Even young children apparently understand expected value, and by late childhood use it to decide in a manner similar to adults, which includes sensitivity to probability and magnitude of outcome (35, 36). These abilities apparently mature by middle adolescence, particularly for decision-making contexts that are relatively less affective (37). However, adolescents may also be more sensitive behaviorally and neurally than adults to increasing expected value (38), and may be more tolerant of ambiguity (39). The range of simple value inputs in much of the relevant research cited previously was limited; researchers should therefore expand the set of stimulus types used in experiments to include more complex, identity-relevant targets and ecologically valid decision-making contexts. Additionally, despite this support for the general value-based choice model in adolescence, researchers have not manipulated the self-relevance of response options to directly test the contribution of identity-based values to adolescent decision-making processes.

Other components of the value-based decision-making model (detailed in 27) may also be affected by development, such as delay discounting in which participants choose between smaller-sooner and larger-later rewards. For example, delay discounting decreases rapidly from early to middle adolescence, a finding that represents an additional important constraint that shapes the value-based decision-making process in adolescence differently than in adulthood (40, 41).

Finally, in addition to the possibility that identity-based and other self-related values become increasingly important to adolescent decision making, particular social motivations like social status and peer or romantic relationships are expected to surge in relevance as well (2, 42, 43). One set of social-cognitive weights on the decision-making process undoubtedly includes perceptions of what others—especially peers (e.g., friends, romantic partners, members of social ingroups, members of high-status social groups)—value; in this context, others also include respected individuals (e.g., family members, teachers). The interaction between this concept and identity development processes is also an interesting consideration. Specifically, these social perceptions provide information about the self (10, 14) and help shape adolescents’ personal values and identity, which subsequently or concurrently are perceived as increasingly significant in decision making.

Conclusion

Although adolescent behavior is influenced by normative developmental changes in sensitivity to rewards and social context, the self also evolves to become an important source of value and intrinsic motivation. With increasing development and exploration of identity commitments and autonomy, the self can be harnessed for self-regulation and other motivated behavior. This creates a space for intervening to improve outcomes in maladaptive cases of adolescent decision making that does not exist within current models, in which d such behaviors are portrayed to result from expected maturational trajectories of frontostriatal circuitry. In particular, identity-based and other self-related values may be much more modifiable targets, either in terms of the content of identity in various contexts or the relative salience of different aspects of identity that might promote different behaviors (e.g., athletic versus academic). For example, the juvenile justice system is considering ways to foster positive and prosocial identities as a way to keep adolescents from engaging in antisocial behavior (44).On a broader level, a neurodevelopmentally informed, value-based decision-making approach may provide not only a more comprehensive theory but also an opportunity to reframe our thinking about adolescents’ choices and actions. If a value-based decision-making account is correct, choices that adults perceive as bad can be considered instead as rational from the adolescent point of view, at least inasmuch as they represent choices with the highest subjective value. The adolescent decision-making system is not broken; adolescents (individually and as a group) may simply consider different value attributes and weight those attributes differently than do adults. By taking the normative adult perspective, we may be artificially constraining the sources of value we consider relevant to adolescent decision making, thereby restricting what we can learn about how and why adolescents’ priorities differ from those of adults, and limiting our ability to develop ways to encourage positive outcomes. Given that developing positive personal and social identities (4–7, 9), as well as balancing autonomy and connectedness, are core tasks of adolescence (8, 33), these self-related and social sources of value are worth prioritizing in investigations and translational efforts.

For numbered references in text go directly to: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6667174/

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Integrating Self and Identity into Value-Based Decision-Making Models of Adolescent Behavior

Adolescents, though advanced compared to children, often exhibit behaviors inconsistent with adult norms. While caricatured as excessive risk-takers susceptible to social pressure, a comprehensive explanation for these tendencies remains elusive. Existing models, such as the dual-systems model and those emphasizing social reorientation, fail to incorporate the critical role of self and identity in adolescent behavior. To address this gap, we propose a neurobiologically grounded, value-based decision-making model that accommodates diverse behavioral influences, including self-identity considerations. We review the development of self and identity during adolescence, linking behavioral and neural aspects. Subsequently, we outline a value-based decision-making framework and its predictions within the context of adolescent development. This model seeks to provide a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of adolescent behavior, potentially improving outcomes and enhancing our comprehension of positive youth development.

The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence

Adolescence is a period marked by significant development of self and identity, encompassing commitments, aspirations, motivations, and psychosocial well-being. This developmental stage is characterized by a striving for autonomy, particularly from parents, alongside increased investment in social aspects of identity and a heightened need for peer connection. Self-evaluations become increasingly nuanced and multifaceted across various roles and relationships, accompanied by heightened self-consciousness and concern for others' perceptions.

Given the importance of these changes, researchers have begun investigating their neural underpinnings. Studies on self-evaluation, often involving trait judgments, have revealed consistent activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and rostral/perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in both children and adolescents when evaluating themselves compared to others. This pattern is attenuated when evaluating close individuals, such as best friends. The vmPFC demonstrates greater activation during self-evaluation in typically developing youth compared to those with autism spectrum disorder and, occasionally, depression.

Studies exploring developmental trajectories of self-evaluative neural responses across adolescence are emerging. Research on the self-reference effect in memory indicates increased activity in the rostral/perigenual ACC from ages 7 to 13 during encoding for self versus mother, and from ages 13 to 19 for self versus a distant other. A longitudinal fMRI study found stable vmPFC and ventral striatum (VS) responses to self-evaluations from age 10 to 13. Activity in the vmPFC increased over time during self-evaluations, particularly in the social domain and in adolescents with advanced pubertal development, suggesting an interplay between biological and social changes influencing self-referential processes.

While the vmPFC and rostral/perigenual ACC are central, other regions are also implicated in self-evaluation. The VS has been observed not only in direct self-evaluations but also in indirect social self-evaluations, particularly when considering a close friend's opinion. This aligns with research highlighting the overlap between self-reference and reward [20] through value assignment. The dorsal medial PFC (dmPFC) and temporal-parietal junction (TPJ) also exhibit activity during self-evaluations in children and adolescents. In adults, these regions are associated with mentalizing, perspective-taking, and evaluating others. Notably, functional connectivity between the TPJ and vmPFC correlates with generosity in adults, suggesting a role for the TPJ in modulating social value during choices involving self and others.

In summary, neuroimaging research consistently implicates the vmPFC and rostral/perigenual ACC, within a broader network including the VS, TPJ, and dmPFC, in various forms of self-evaluation in children and adolescents. Activity in these regions appears to increase from late childhood through middle adolescence. These findings underscore the crucial role of adolescence in identity development.

Despite the established significance of self and identity during adolescence, their integration into neurodevelopmental models of adolescent behavior remains unclear. Dual-systems models, for instance, emphasize a mismatch between mature reward circuitry and immature cognitive control circuitry. However, self/identity does not neatly fit into either category, as it can contribute to both reward-seeking and regulatory behavior. For instance, a strong academic identity might prioritize studying over other activities, but the mechanism—reward or regulation—remains ambiguous. In the next section, we introduce a model that positions self and identity as central to behavior determination, elucidating the vmPFC's functional role during this period.

Value-Based Decision Making as a Mechanism of Motivated Behaviors in Adolescence

Consider a scenario where an adolescent chooses to attend a party, potentially involving alcohol and an attractive peer, despite parental disapproval and scheduled academic commitments. From an adult perspective, this might appear as a lapse in self-control. However, from the adolescent's viewpoint, this decision could reflect the high subjective value placed on partying and its associated opportunities compared to alternatives like studying. This aligns with observations that adolescents often make decisions optimizing utility within their social microenvironments, a pattern consistent with utility-maximization functions observed across age groups.

Recent research has shed light on the computational and neural processes underlying value-based decision making, specifically in either-or choices involving options with varying attributes. This approach posits that diverse gains and costs are dynamically integrated, accounting for noise, to produce choices. The flexibility of this model allows for choice-specific inputs that are not confined to a single category. For example, parental incentives for good grades can represent both tangible and social rewards.

From this perspective, what adults perceive as problematic adolescent behavior might stem from a normative developmental shift that elevates the subjective value of self- and identity-relevant inputs compared to childhood. The heightened vmPFC activity observed during self-evaluation and relational identity processing in adolescence overlaps spatially with the neural representation of value. This suggests that self and identity, along with their associated processes, might contribute significantly to value computations, thereby shaping decision-making and motivated behavior throughout adolescence.

Value-based choice models describe decision-making as the output of a unified value-accumulation process centered in the vmPFC. This process integrates signals from regions representing relevant choice attributes (e.g., self-related value in the mPFC, social values in the TPJ, abstract goals in the lateral PFC). Two key aspects of value integration are: 1) it is not assumed to be deliberative, meaning inputs are integrated computationally without relying on explicit reasoning, allowing for rational decision-making independent of formal thought processes; and 2) the model acknowledges the diversity of inputs and their potential for complex interactions, moving beyond simple dichotomies like "hot" versus "cold" processes. This framework emphasizes that observed activations in multiple brain regions during decision-making might reflect simultaneous contributions to value integration rather than competition or inhibition.

By dissolving the direct mapping between processes (e.g., hot/cold or reward/regulation) and outcomes (e.g., risky/safe), this model avoids limitations inherent in dual-systems approaches that propose competing systems vying for behavioral control. The crucial distinction in a value-based decision-making model lies not in the type of process but in the factors contributing to the value assigned to different behaviors. For instance, the model focuses on whether a behavior is promoted by social influence, irrespective of its categorization as hot or cold. By considering the diverse motivations behind behaviors, this model suggests new experimental paradigms manipulating these motivations and opens avenues for interventions targeting the variety of value inputs, rather than focusing solely on reward and control processes.

The Identity-Value Model expands upon this general value-based decision-making framework by emphasizing the crucial role of identity in self-regulation and motivated behavior. Its central hypothesis posits that goal-directed behaviors hold greater value when relevant to one's identity. Returning to the previous example, a strong academic identity might increase the value of studying, potentially outweighing the allure of the party. Conversely, a desire to fit in with a peer group that values late-night socializing could increase the value of attending the party. This model acknowledges the multifaceted nature of identity, allowing for different aspects (e.g., academic, social, familial, ethnic/cultural, interest-based) to influence the value of self-regulatory behaviors depending on their salience and perceived relevance to the decision. Key features of identity that enhance its effectiveness in adulthood include stability, positivity, and accessibility.

Given that identity development is a central task of adolescence, with significant exploration and commitment to key identities during this period, we anticipate identity-relevant inputs to increase in value across adolescence, impacting self-regulation and other motivated behaviors. Moreover, a reciprocal relationship between identities and behaviors is likely, with consistently chosen actions reinforcing the value of associated identities.

Additional Developmental Considerations for Value-Based Decision Making

An important consideration is the developmental trajectory of decision-making processes within this model. Research suggests that even young children grasp the concept of expected value and, by late childhood, utilize it in decision-making similar to adults, demonstrating sensitivity to outcome probability and magnitude. These abilities appear to mature by middle adolescence, particularly in less emotionally charged contexts. However, adolescents might display greater behavioral and neural sensitivity to increasing expected value compared to adults and exhibit greater tolerance for ambiguity. Future research should expand beyond simple value inputs and explore more complex, identity-relevant targets within ecologically valid decision-making contexts to fully capture these nuances. Furthermore, despite support for the general value-based choice model in adolescence, direct manipulation of self-relevance in response options is needed to explicitly test the contribution of identity-based values to adolescent decision-making.

Other components of the value-based decision-making model, such as delay discounting (choosing between smaller-sooner and larger-later rewards), may also be subject to developmental influences. For example, delay discounting decreases rapidly from early to middle adolescence, highlighting another factor shaping value-based decision-making in adolescence differently from adulthood.

Finally, in addition to the increasing importance of identity-based values in adolescent decision-making, specific social motivations, such as social status and peer/romantic relationships, are expected to gain prominence. Perceptions of what others value, especially peers (e.g., friends, romantic interests, ingroup members, high-status individuals) and respected figures (e.g., family, teachers), likely serve as social-cognitive weights in the decision-making process. The interaction between these social perceptions and identity development is particularly intriguing, as these perceptions provide information about the self, shaping adolescents' values and identities, which subsequently influence decision-making.

Conclusion

While adolescent behavior is undoubtedly influenced by developmental changes in reward sensitivity and social context, the self emerges as a significant source of value and intrinsic motivation during this period. As identity commitments and autonomy develop, the self can be leveraged for self-regulation and other motivated behaviors. This insight presents opportunities for intervention that are absent in current models attributing adolescent behavior primarily to frontostriatal circuitry maturation. Identity-based and other self-related values represent modifiable targets, either through shaping the content of identity or manipulating the salience of different identity aspects to promote desired behaviors. For example, the juvenile justice system is exploring ways to foster positive, prosocial identities as a means of deterring antisocial behavior.

More broadly, a neurodevelopmentally informed, value-based decision-making approach provides a more comprehensive theoretical framework and encourages a reframing of how we view adolescent choices and actions. If this account holds true, behaviors perceived as negative by adults might reflect rational choices from the adolescent's perspective, maximizing subjective value. Rather than viewing the adolescent decision-making system as inherently flawed, this model suggests that adolescents may simply consider different value attributes and weight them differently than adults. By adopting a normative adult perspective, we risk overlooking crucial sources of value relevant to adolescents, hindering our understanding of their priorities and limiting our ability to promote positive outcomes. Given that developing positive personal and social identities, alongside balancing autonomy and connectedness, represent core developmental tasks of adolescence, prioritizing these self-related and social sources of value in research and translational efforts is paramount.

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Reframing Adolescent Decision-Making: Considering the Role of Identity and Self

Introduction

Adolescents are often stereotyped as impulsive risk-takers, overly self-absorbed, and easily swayed by peer pressure. While this portrayal is simplistic, understanding why these tendencies are heightened during adolescence remains a challenge. The dominant "dual-systems model" attributes adolescent risk-taking to an imbalance between developing brain regions associated with reward and cognitive control. Another model highlights the impact of evolving social networks as adolescents prioritize peer influence. However, both models neglect the crucial role of identity formation and self-related processes, such as personal values and self-perception, in shaping adolescent behavior. This oversight is significant because the "self" represents a nexus of social, cognitive, emotional, motivational, and regulatory processes.

This article proposes a neuroscientifically grounded model of decision-making that emphasizes the concept of "value." This model accommodates the diverse influences on adolescent behavior, including self-identity considerations, which can both encourage and discourage risk-taking depending on the situation. We begin by examining the development of self and identity during adolescence, connecting behavioral observations with brain research. Subsequently, we outline the value-based decision-making model and its implications for understanding adolescent development. Our aim is to present a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of adolescent behavior, potentially leading to improved support for adolescents and a deeper appreciation for their positive and prosocial development.

The Development of Self and Identity in Adolescence

Adolescence is a period marked by profound changes in self-perception and identity formation, impacting personal values, goals, motivations, and overall well-being. Teenagers strive for independence, especially from parents, while simultaneously seeking deeper connections with peers and aligning themselves with social identities. Self-evaluation becomes more complex and nuanced across different roles and relationships. Adolescents also experience heightened self-consciousness, becoming preoccupied with how others perceive them.

Neuroscience research has begun to unravel the neural underpinnings of these developmental shifts. Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) reveal that, similar to adults, children and adolescents show increased activity in specific brain regions – the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) – when evaluating themselves compared to evaluating others. Interestingly, this difference is less pronounced when considering close friends. The vmPFC is consistently active during self-evaluation, even in adolescents facing mental health challenges like autism spectrum disorder and depression.

Longitudinal fMRI studies, tracking individuals over time, have provided further insights. These studies show that activity in the vmPFC and ACC during self-evaluation increases from late childhood through adolescence, either plateauing or continuing to rise into adulthood. This increased activity, especially pronounced when considering social aspects of the self, suggests that puberty-related changes influence self-perception and its associated value.

While the vmPFC and ACC play a central role in self-evaluation, other brain regions are also involved. The ventral striatum (VS), linked to reward processing, is active not only during direct self-evaluation but also when considering how close friends perceive them. The dorsal medial PFC (dmPFC) and temporal-parietal junction (TPJ), associated with understanding others' perspectives, are also engaged during self-evaluation in children and adolescents.

In conclusion, research consistently demonstrates that self-evaluation and identity-related processes engage the vmPFC, ACC, VS, TPJ, and dmPFC in adolescents. Activity in the vmPFC and ACC intensifies from late childhood to middle adolescence, reflecting the critical importance of identity development during this period.

Value-Based Decision Making as a Mechanism of Motivated Behaviors in Adolescence

Imagine a teenager choosing between attending a party where alcohol might be present or staying home to study for an upcoming test. This decision, while seemingly impulsive from an adult's perspective, can be understood through the lens of "value-based decision making". This model posits that choices are driven by the subjective value assigned to different options.

In this framework, the decision to attend the party might reflect the high value the teenager places on socializing and potential romantic opportunities, outweighing the value of academic achievement in that moment. This approach aligns with observations that adolescents often prioritize immediate social rewards.

The value-based decision-making model proposes that various factors contribute to the overall value assigned to a particular choice. These factors, represented by activity across different brain regions, are integrated within the vmPFC to determine the final decision. Notably, the model emphasizes the dynamic and context-dependent nature of value, recognizing that a single factor can contribute to multiple values.

We propose that the increased activity observed in the vmPFC during self-evaluation in adolescence reflects a heightened value placed on self-related factors during decision-making. This suggests that identity and self-perception become increasingly potent drivers of behavior throughout adolescence.

This model deviates from the traditional "hot vs. cold" or "reward vs. regulation" dichotomy often used to explain adolescent behavior. Instead, it underscores the multifaceted nature of value and the diverse inputs that shape it. It acknowledges that factors like social influence can promote both risky and safe behaviors depending on the context.

By focusing on the "why" behind behavior – the specific values driving the choice – the model offers a more nuanced understanding of adolescent decision-making. It moves beyond simplistic explanations, suggesting that seemingly impulsive choices are often rational when considering the adolescent's subjective value system.

Additional Developmental Considerations for Value-Based Decision Making

Research suggests that even young children grasp the concept of value, making choices based on potential rewards and risks (35, 36). This ability matures throughout adolescence, becoming more refined in less emotionally charged situations. However, compared to adults, adolescents may be more sensitive to changes in expected value, both behaviorally and neurally (38), and more comfortable with uncertainty.

Future research should explore the influence of self-relevance on adolescent decision-making by incorporating more complex, identity-related choices into experimental paradigms. Furthermore, additional developmental factors, such as delay discounting – the tendency to choose immediate rewards over larger, delayed rewards – also shape adolescent decision-making.

In addition to the growing influence of identity, social factors, particularly peer influence and the desire for social status, become increasingly salient during adolescence. Perceptions of what peers, friends, romantic partners, and admired individuals value play a crucial role in shaping adolescent decision-making. Notably, these social perceptions also provide feedback that shapes the developing self-concept and identity, further influencing personal values.

Conclusion

While adolescent behavior is undoubtedly influenced by developmental changes in reward sensitivity and social context, the evolving sense of self also emerges as a powerful motivator. As adolescents explore their identities and strive for autonomy, the self becomes a significant source of value, influencing self-regulation and other motivated behaviors.

The value-based decision-making model provides a framework for understanding adolescent choices that extends beyond attributing them solely to immature brain development. It suggests that interventions aimed at fostering positive identity formation and aligning values with prosocial behaviors hold promise for promoting positive outcomes. Programs within the juvenile justice system, for example, are beginning to incorporate identity-based interventions as a means of reducing recidivism.

By adopting a value-based perspective, we can move beyond viewing adolescent choices as inherently flawed or irrational. Instead, we can begin to appreciate how their decisions reflect a developing value system that prioritizes different factors, particularly those related to the self and social relationships. This approach encourages a more empathetic and constructive understanding of adolescent behavior, ultimately facilitating their transition to adulthood.

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Why Do Teenagers Act That Way? Looking at Self and Identity

Introduction

We often hear that teenagers make bad decisions because their brains aren't fully developed yet. It's true that their brains are still changing, but that's not the whole story. Teenagers are also developing their sense of self and identity, and that plays a big part in the choices they make.

Who Am I? Figuring Out Self and Identity in the Teenage Years

The teenage years are a time of huge change in how we see ourselves and who we want to be. We're figuring out our values, goals, and what matters to us. We want more independence, especially from our parents, and we care more about what our friends think. We think about ourselves in more complex ways, considering different parts of our lives like school, friends, and family. We also become more self-conscious, worrying about what others think of us.

Brain imaging studies show that certain parts of the brain are really active when teenagers think about themselves. These areas, like the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), help us understand what we value. The vmPFC is especially active when teens think about themselves compared to when they think about other people, and it becomes even more active as they grow older. This suggests that thinking about ourselves and our identity becomes more important during the teenage years.

Making Choices Based on What We Value

Let's take an example: a teen on Friday night has two choices. One option is to go to a party. The other option is to stay home to study for a math test. Their parents would prefer them to study, but there's a chance the teen's crush will be at the party. What do they do?

From an adult's perspective, studying might seem like the obvious choice. But teenagers might place a higher value on social experiences, like hanging out with friends or impressing a crush. This doesn't mean teenagers are bad at making decisions. It just means they consider different factors when deciding what's important to them.

Scientists have a model for understanding how we make choices, called value-based decision making. It says that our brains weigh the pros and cons of different options based on what we find rewarding or valuable. These "rewards" can be anything from getting good grades to fitting in with friends.

The Power of Identity in Decision-Making

The Identity-Value Model takes this idea a step further by saying that we are more likely to do things that fit with our sense of self. For example, a teenager who values academics might choose to study because it aligns with their identity as a good student. On the other hand, a teenager who prioritizes social status might choose to go to the party because it aligns with their desired social image.

As teenagers grow and explore different identities, their values and priorities can shift. This means that their decisions will likely change too.

Thinking Differently About Teenage Choices

The way teenagers make decisions isn’t just about their brains being "under construction." It's also about their developing sense of self and identity. By understanding this, we can start to see teenage choices in a new light.

Instead of viewing certain behaviors as simply "bad" or "impulsive," we can recognize that they might make sense from a teenager's perspective. They are weighing different factors and placing value on different things.

This understanding can help us find better ways to support teenagers as they navigate this complex time in their lives. For example, instead of just telling them to make "better choices," we can help them develop strong, positive identities that will guide them toward making healthy and fulfilling decisions.

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Teens and Decision-Making

Teenagers are said to do risky things because their brains aren't fully developed yet. It's true that teenage brains are still growing, but that doesn't mean there's something wrong with them. In fact, teenagers are actually good at making decisions, they just care about different things than adults do.

It's All About Value

As a teenager, a sense of self – who you are and what you believe – is changing a lot. Teens are figuring out what's important to them, like friends, hobbies, or what they want to do in the future. The brain is also becoming more sensitive to social information, like about what peers think and what's considered "cool."

Imagine the brain is like a computer that's making a decision, like whether to study for a test or hang out with friends. The brain takes in lots of different information, like how important the test is, how much fun someone would have with their friends, and what their parents will say. It gives each piece of information a "value" based on how important it is to that person right now. Then, it adds up the values and picks the choice with the highest total value.

Why Teenagers and Adults Disagree

Teenagers often value things like social status and excitement more than adults do. This is because their brains are wired to help them learn and explore the world, and social experiences are a big part of that. So, while an adult might see going to a party as risky, a teenager might see it as a valuable opportunity to make friends and have fun.

Identity and Choices

Teens also put more value on choices that make sense with their identity or sense of self. If they see themselves as a "good student", they might choose to study over going to a party. If they like to party and identify as "party-er" then they will likely choose going to a party over studying.

As teenagers grow and explore different identities, their values and priorities can change. This means that their decisions will likely change too. Trying new things and testing boundaries is a normal part of growing up. As teenagers gain more experience and their sense of self becomes stronger, they get better at making decisions that are good for them in the long run.

What Does This Mean for Us?

It's important to remember that teenagers aren't just "adults-in-training." They have their own unique perspectives and motivations, and their brains are wired to help them navigate the challenges of adolescence. By understanding how teenage brains work, we can learn to communicate with them more effectively and help them make good choices.

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