Fraud can be a serious social problem nowadays (e.g., Ross et al., 2014), with detrimental financial and health consequences that may severely affect older adults (Button et al., 2014; Kircanski et al., 2018). Anecdotally and empirically, older adults are hypothesized to be more vulnerable to fraud victimization than younger adults (Carcach et al., 2001). Although age differences in fraud victimization have been overwhelmingly featured in news and media reports, empirical research did not reach a consensus. On the one hand, some research supports an increased fraud victimization susceptibility in older adults. For example, among community-dwelling older adults, older age is associated with heightened susceptibility to financial victimization (James et al., 2012). Furthermore, older adults' cognitive declines make them more likely to be subject to false memory, distraction and interference, and slower processing (e.g., Jacoby and Rhodes, 2006), which might contribute to their poor financial decision-making (Han et al., 2015; Wilson et al., 2016; Ebner et al., 2020). In support of this, past research did identify cognitive ability as a crucial predictor of fraud victimization among older adults (Judges et al., 2017). Additionally, there are also some personality and social factors for heightened fraud vulnerability in older adults, such as lower honesty and humility, lower conscientiousness, higher social isolation and loneliness, and lower self-control (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990; Alves and Wilson, 2008; Judges et al., 2017).

On the other hand, it has also been suggested that aging is associated with some protective factors that shield older adults against scam victimization. For example, older adults' higher level of emotional understanding might help them to correctly identify emotional warning signs and thus reduce their susceptibility to scams (Mueller et al., 2020). Furthermore, older adults are differentially more resistant to persuasion and more sensitive to risks, which might protect them from scam responding (Rolison et al., 2019). However, little is known about the underlying neural and biological mechanisms, as well as the psychological and individual profiles of aging fraud victims.

In this Research Topic, a collection of articles features research findings that fill some of the aforementioned gaps in the literature. Shang et al. reported a systematic review of internet fraud victimization among older adults. Previous studies revealed some psychosocial determinants/characteristics of victims for certain types of fraud, including special fraud (i.e., crime committed through pretending to be someone special to the victim, such as a friend, a relative, or an employee; Ueno et al.) and COVID-19 scams (Nolte et al.). Lin et al. explored the neural (i.e., amygdala activation) and biological (i.e., oxytocin) mechanisms for age differences in face trustworthiness judgments (assumed to be related to fraud susceptibility).

The systematic review by Shang et al. aimed to identify common psychological characteristics of older fraud victims, in a specific context of online/Internet scams, by reviewing a selection of 21 research articles. It follows a rigorous process of literature search and article screening. The risk of bias was thoroughly analyzed. A number of general conclusions could be drawn: (1) There is no convergent evidence for a heightened prevalence of online fraud victimization among older adults than other age groups; (2) There is no consensus on the role of cognitive function, mental health, and physical health in online fraud victimization of older adults; and (3) The techniques used by fraudsters and past fraud experience might be related to older adults' fraud susceptibility. This view challenges the predominant and popular view of an aging-associated increase in fraud victimization (James et al., 2012). However, the result well aligns with some other studies (e.g., Ross et al., 2014).

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a surge in scams. Nolte et al. examined age differences across younger, middle-aged, and older adults in COVID-19 scam vulnerability, as indexed by their responses to COVID-19 solicitations (e.g., willingness/likelihood to click a link or purchase the featured product). The study also examined some psychological and sociodemographic factors related to COVID-19 scam vulnerability. No age differences were detected in the willingness to respond to scam solicitations. Nevertheless, older adults showed a differentially more cautious response tendency toward scam information. Specifically, they tended to view scams as less beneficial and more risky relative to other age groups. Furthermore, higher education, being married, past fraud experience, and higher positive urgency were identified as predictors of scam vulnerability. Finally, scam response intention was well predicted by higher perceived genuineness and benefits and lower perceived risks associated with the scam solicitations. The results suggest that scam susceptibility is more likely a result of poor impulse control. Even past scam victimization experiences would not inhibit this urge.

Using a slightly different approach, Ueno et al. compared fraud victims with non-victims of special frauds among Japanese older adults. The results identified some critical psychosocial characteristics of victimized older adults: being female, living alone, going out infrequently, being overconfident against fraud, and responding quickly to phone calls or visitors.

Taking a slightly different approach, Lin et al. examined the face trustworthiness judgments between younger and older adults and the underlying brain (i.e., amygdala activation) and biological (i.e., oxytocin) mechanisms. Specifically, younger and older adults received oxytocin or a placebo through nasal spray before the face trustworthiness rating task coupled with an fMRI scan. No overall age differences were found in the rating performance, but older adults rated ambivalent, untrustworthy-looking faces as more trustworthy relative to younger adults. The lateralized amygdala activation was differentially related to face trustworthiness ratings for younger and older adults. Importantly, the single-dose oxytocin did not modulate behavioral or brain effects involved in face trustworthiness ratings in either age group.

Taken together, this collection of articles sheds important light on our understanding of fraud susceptibility, its age differences, psychosocial and demographic predictors, and neural/biological markers. Overall, the literature on age differences in fraud victimization has not reached a clear consensus, but younger and older adults showed different neural mechanisms for fraud regulation.

Summary

Fraud represents a significant societal issue, potentially leading to severe financial and health consequences, particularly for older adults. Research on whether older adults are more susceptible to fraud than younger individuals presents mixed findings. Some studies suggest heightened vulnerability in older adults, attributing it to factors such as cognitive changes that can affect financial decision-making, along with certain personality traits and social circumstances like isolation. However, other research indicates that aging may also bring protective factors, such as enhanced emotional understanding and a greater resistance to persuasion, which could reduce the likelihood of falling victim to scams. Despite these insights, there remains a need for deeper understanding of the specific brain and biological mechanisms, as well as the psychological profiles, of older adults who experience fraud.

This collection of research articles contributes to addressing these knowledge gaps. The studies explore various aspects of fraud susceptibility, including how it differs across age groups, identifies psychosocial and demographic predictors, and investigates underlying brain and biological markers. The overall body of literature on age differences in fraud victimization has not yet reached a clear agreement, but findings suggest that younger and older adults may regulate their responses to fraud differently at a neurological level.

One systematic review examined internet fraud among older adults. It concluded that there is no consistent evidence showing a higher prevalence of online fraud victimization in older adults compared to other age groups. The review also found no consensus on how cognitive function, mental health, or physical health universally influence online fraud susceptibility in older adults. Instead, the methods used by fraudsters and a person's past experience with fraud might be more relevant factors. Another study focused on COVID-19 related scams and found no age differences in the willingness to respond to scam attempts. However, older adults tended to be more cautious, viewing scams as less beneficial and more risky. This study also highlighted that factors such as perceived genuineness, potential benefits of the scam, and poor impulse control were strong predictors of vulnerability, suggesting that even previous scam experiences do not always prevent future incidents.

Further research explored specific characteristics of fraud victims. One study compared Japanese older adults who were victims of "special frauds" (where fraudsters impersonate someone close to the victim) with non-victims. It identified several distinguishing traits among victims, including being female, living alone, infrequent social outings, overconfidence in resisting fraud, and quick responses to unexpected calls or visitors. In a different approach, researchers investigated how younger and older adults judge the trustworthiness of faces, examining associated brain activity and biological responses. While there were no overall age differences in judging trustworthiness, older adults were more likely to rate ambiguous or untrustworthy-looking faces as trustworthy. Distinct patterns of brain activity were observed between younger and older adults during these judgments, though a specific hormone did not alter these behavioral or brain responses in either age group.

Collectively, these studies advance understanding of the complex nature of fraud susceptibility. They highlight that vulnerability is influenced by a combination of cognitive, social, and individual factors. Rather than a simple age-related increase in risk, the research suggests a nuanced interplay of factors, reinforcing the need for targeted prevention strategies that consider diverse psychological profiles and underlying mechanisms.

Summary

Fraud represents a significant societal issue, often leading to severe financial and health consequences, particularly for older adults. Research has explored whether older adults are more susceptible to fraud than younger individuals, but a clear consensus has not been reached. Some studies suggest increased vulnerability in older adults due to factors like cognitive declines, which can affect financial decision-making, and certain personality or social elements such as social isolation or lower self-control. Conversely, other research points to protective factors in older adults, including higher emotional understanding and increased resistance to persuasion, which might reduce their susceptibility to scams. However, the specific neural and biological mechanisms, as well as the detailed psychological profiles of older fraud victims, have remained largely unknown.

Recent research endeavors aim to address these gaps in understanding. One systematic review of internet fraud victimization among older adults examined a selection of studies to identify common psychological characteristics. This review found no consistent evidence supporting a higher prevalence of online fraud victimization in older adults compared to other age groups. Furthermore, the roles of cognitive function, mental health, and physical health in online fraud susceptibility among older adults were not consistently demonstrated across studies. Instead, factors like the techniques used by fraudsters and an individual's past fraud experiences appeared more consistently related to susceptibility. This perspective challenges the popular belief that aging is directly linked to an increase in fraud victimization.

Other studies within this research area investigated specific types of fraud and the factors influencing vulnerability. One study examining COVID-19 scam susceptibility across different adult age groups found no significant age differences in the willingness to respond to scam solicitations. However, older adults did exhibit a more cautious approach, perceiving scams as less beneficial and more risky. This research also identified that higher education, marital status, previous fraud experience, and higher positive urgency could predict scam vulnerability. Another study, focusing on "special frauds" among Japanese older adults, identified specific psychosocial characteristics in victims, such as being female, living alone, infrequent social outings, overconfidence regarding fraud, and a tendency to respond quickly to unsolicited contacts. These findings collectively suggest that poor impulse control, rather than age alone, may play a significant role in scam susceptibility.

Further research explored the underlying brain and biological mechanisms related to an individual's judgment of trustworthiness, which is often linked to fraud susceptibility. One study compared younger and older adults' judgments of face trustworthiness and examined associated brain activity in the amygdala, a brain region involved in emotion processing. While no overall age differences were found in rating performance, older adults tended to rate ambivalent or untrustworthy-looking faces as more trustworthy than younger adults. Different patterns of amygdala activation were observed between age groups in relation to these judgments. The study also explored the role of oxytocin, a hormone often linked to social bonding, but a single dose did not alter behavioral or brain responses in either age group.

Collectively, these studies provide valuable insights into fraud susceptibility, age-related differences, and the contributing psychosocial, demographic, neural, and biological factors. While a clear consensus on age differences in overall fraud victimization remains elusive, the research indicates that younger and older adults may utilize different neural mechanisms when evaluating and regulating responses to potentially fraudulent situations.

Summary

Fraud presents a significant societal challenge, leading to serious financial and health issues. Older adults are often believed to be more susceptible to fraud, and some research supports this idea, pointing to cognitive changes that can affect decision-making, as well as certain personality traits and social situations like isolation. However, other studies suggest that aging may also bring protective qualities, such as greater emotional understanding and increased caution, which could reduce the likelihood of falling victim to scams. Despite this, a clear understanding of the specific brain and psychological reasons behind fraud victimization in older adults remains limited.

Recent studies have begun to explore these gaps in understanding. A collection of articles has examined various aspects of fraud victimization among older adults, including systematic reviews of online fraud, studies on specific types of scams, and investigations into how people judge trustworthiness.

One systematic review of internet fraud victimization among older adults found no clear evidence that older adults are more prone to online fraud than other age groups. This review also found no consistent link between cognitive function, mental health, or physical health and online fraud victimization in older adults. Separately, research on COVID-19 scams revealed no age differences in how willing people were to respond to scam attempts. Interestingly, older adults showed a more cautious approach, viewing such scams as less beneficial and more risky. Additionally, a study comparing Japanese older adult fraud victims with non-victims identified specific traits for those victimized by "special frauds," such as being female, living alone, and being overconfident about avoiding fraud.

Another study investigated how younger and older adults judge facial trustworthiness, which relates to fraud susceptibility, and looked at related brain activity. While no overall age differences were found in how faces were rated, older adults tended to rate ambiguous or untrustworthy-looking faces as more trustworthy than younger adults did. This research also showed different brain responses in younger and older adults when making these judgments.

Taken together, this body of research provides important insights into fraud vulnerability, age-related differences, and the factors that predict victimization. While a clear consensus on age differences in fraud susceptibility has not yet been reached, these studies indicate that younger and older adults may have different brain mechanisms influencing how they respond to potential fraud.

Summary

Fraud is a serious problem that can cause serious money and health issues, especially for older adults. Some people think older adults are more likely to be victims of fraud. This is because older adults might have changes in thinking, like forgetting things more easily or thinking more slowly. Also, how they act and interact with others, such as feeling alone or having less self-control, might make them more open to fraud.

However, other ideas suggest older adults might have ways to protect themselves. For example, they might be better at understanding feelings, which helps them see warning signs. They may also be better at saying no to people trying to trick them and more careful about risks.

New studies have looked into these ideas to learn more about fraud victims. One study that looked at many other studies found no clear proof that older adults are more often victims of online fraud. It also found no clear agreement on how thinking, mental health, or body health play a part. But it did suggest that the tricks fraudsters use and if someone has been scammed before might matter. This goes against what many people think.

Other studies looked at specific types of fraud. For scams during the COVID-19 pandemic, older and younger people were equally willing to answer scam ads, but older adults were more careful. This study found that not being able to control impulses often led to being scammed. Another study on "special frauds" (where someone pretends to be a friend or family) found victims were often women who lived alone, didn't go out much, thought they were too smart to be scammed, or answered calls quickly. Also, research into how the brain works showed that older adults might see unclear faces as more honest than younger adults. Overall, while there is no clear agreement on age differences in fraud, it seems older and younger brains work differently when trying to avoid fraud.